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THE STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA OF HORTICULTURE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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I. The azalea walk.— Magnolia, South Carolina

THE 0/1

STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA OF HORTICULTURE

A DISCUSSION, FOR THE AMATEUR, AND THE PROFESSIONAL AND COMMERCIAL GROWER, OF THE KINDS, CHARACTERISTICS AND METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF THE SPECIES OF PLANTS GROWN IN THE REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA FOR ORNAMENT, FOR FANCY, FOR FRUIT AND FOR VEGETABLES; WITH KEYS TO THE NATURAL FAMILIES AND GENERA, DESCRIPTIONS OF THE HORTI- CULTURAL CAPABILITIES OF THE STATES AND PROVINCES AND DEPENDENT ISLANDS, AND SKETCHES OF EMINENT HORTICULTURISTS

BY

L. H. BAILEY

Illustrated with Colored Platen, Four Thousand Engravings in the Text, and Ninety-six Full -page (.'uts

IN SIX VOLUMES

VOL. I— A-B

PAGES 1-602. FIGS. 1-700

THIRD EDITION

Sorb THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. 1919

The rights of reproduction and of translation are strictly reserved

v.

COPYRIGHT, 1900 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

REWRITTEN, ENLARGED AND RESET

COPYRIGHT, 1914 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set Up and Electrotyped. Published March 25, 1914 Reprinted May, 1917; March. 1019

, DEPT.

.fOouiit Pleasant Prrss J. HORACE MCFARLAND COMPANY Birno, PENNSYLVANIA

PREFACE

FOURTEEN years ago the present Editor wrote the preface to Volume I of the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. The purpose of that work was "to make a complete record of the status of North American horticulture as it exists at the close of the nineteenth century;" it was the effort to include "all the species which are known to be in the horticultural trade,." together with outlines of "the horti- cultural possibilities of the various states, territories and provinces," to present bio- graphical sketches of eminent American horticulturists not then living, and in general to discuss the cultivation and handling of horticultural crops. In the preface to Volume IV of that work the Editor expressed the hope that the Cyclopedia would never be revised: "If new issues are called for, mere errors should be corrected; but beyond this, the plates should be left as they are," for it was the purpose of the book that it should stand as a, measure of that time. The different volumes have been separately reprinted, but about eight complete re-issues of that Cyclopedia have been made, with such corrections of errors as have been reported; in one restricted edition, published by Doubleday, Page & Co., the same work was bound in six volumes, together with an enlarged preface and' a key to the families and genera.

The present Cyclopedia, although founded on the former compilation, is a new work with an enlarged scope. While the older work will no longer be published, it neverthe- less stands by itself; and the two should be quoted as independent cyclopedias. The geographical boundaries are wider in the present work, due to the fact that the United States and Canada have both acquired new tropical connections and interests in recent years. It has not been the effort to cover completely the horticultural floras of Porto Rico, Hawaii, and other islands, for that would involve the tropical flora of the globe; but it is the intention to include the most outstanding species grown in a horti- cultural way in those islands. A fuller treatment has also been given of the plants grown in southern Florida, southern California, and the other southernmost areas of the continental United States.

The treatment in the former Cyclopedia was confined closely to species in "the trade," — to those plants "sold in the United States and Canada." The present work accepts this basis in general, for the lists of nurserymen, seedsmen, and fanciers indicate very closely the plants that actually are grown, and it would manifestly be impossible as well as undesirable to include all the plants that may be found in botanic gardens, or in the grounds of specialists and amateurs who collect specimens from original sources, or those introduced for purposes of experiment or test or only for scientific study; but "the trade" is interpreted more liberally in this work, to include the offerings of

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.107 "7 1 1

vi PREFACE

many European dealers because those dealers supply American customers, to account for species mentioned prominently in European horticultural periodicals as well as in American periodicals, and to insert such plants as are known to be subjects of exchange or to be frequently in cultivation in any region, even though their names may not be found in a commercial list. While it is intended to account for all the species in the trade, it is not intended to name the garden varieties; for the variety lists change too rapidly for discussion in cyclopedic works. The mention of varieties in the leading group-articles is more a matter of record than of recommendation.

Care has been exercised to exclude species that are evidently not now of interest to horticulturists, even though their names may be found in the literature; for the introduction of many dead entries would not only violate the purpose to make a current record, but would make the books too voluminous and would confuse the student with too many names and details. It is desired that the treatment shall be contemporaneous, and that it shall be rescued as far as desirable from the older glasshouse method of transatlantic work. The Cyclopedia aims to account for the plants horticulturally grown within its territory which are now the subjects of living interest or likely to be introduced, to discuss the best practices in the growing of the staple flower and fruit and vegetable crops, to depict the horticultural capabilities of the states and provinces, to indicate the literature of the field, and incidentally to portray briefly the lives of the former men and women who have attained to a large or a national reputation in horticultural pursuits.

The method in the Cyclopedia, in other words, turns about two purposes, — the identification of species, and the cultivation of plants. Both are essential to an understanding of horticulture. The former lends itself readily to usual cyclopedic treatment; the latter expresses itself as a manual of practice. The combination pro- duces an irregular literary product, but it is hoped that the result is not inharmonious.

The cultural details involve special difficulties. The North American continent presents so many conditions that advice for outdoor work cannot be too specific in a work of this kind without leading to serious mistakes. What is advised by a good grower in one place may be contradicted by a good grower in another place. Even in under-glass treatment, in which conditions are largely artificial, difficulties often arise in trying to apply in America the instructions given for European practice. It is not possible for one to grow plants by a book; in this work the cultural details are not directions so much as statements of standard practice: this practice will need to be considerably modified in many cases if the best result for special conditions or objects is to be secured. In the former Cyclopedia the culture was often presented by two persons of unlike experiences for the express purpose of meeting the needs of amateurs ; but readers seem to think this to be confusing and the practice has not been followed in the present work. However, special effort has been made to secure the best cultural advice for the plants requiring peculiar or particular handling, and this advice will be found in the discussion of the different crops and plants under their respective heads;

PREFACE

VII

and in addition many practical class-articles have been prepared for the aid of the cultivator and designer. These class-articles are mostly as follows:

Alpine Plants

Annuals

Ants

Aquatics

Arlx) return

Arboriculture

Autumn-Gardening

Hanks

Basket Plants

Bedding

Bees

Biennials

Birds

Border

Botanic Garden

Bouquet

Bulbs

( ciiiservatory

Culinary Herbs

Cut-Flower Industry

Cuttings

Design, Floral

Diseases and Insects

Drainage

Dwarfing

Evaporating Fruit

Evergreens

Everlastings

Exhibitions

Ferns

Fertilizers

Floriculture

Florists' Plants

Forcing

Forestry

Frost

Fruit-growing

Fungi

Grafting

Grasses

Greenhouse

Hedges

Herbs

Horticulture

Hotbeds and Coldframes

House-Plants

Inspection

Irrigation

Kitchen-Garden

Labels

Landscape-Gardening

Layers

Machinery and Implements

Manure

Market-Gardening

Marketing

Muckland-Gardening

Mushrooms

Nursery

Nut-Culture

Nuts Orchids Packages Palms

Perfumery-Gardening Pergolas Planting Potting Pruning

Railroad-Gardening Rock-Gardening Seeds and Seedage Storage Transplanting Transportation Vegetable-Gardening Walks, Drives and Path- Watering [ways Windbreaks Window-Gardening

There is marked growth in outdoor horticulture in North America. The largest extension in the present Cyclopedia, so far as taxonomic work is concerned, is in the description of trees and shrubs. There is widespread interest in these subjects. We are beginning to realize our native resources in woody plants, to understand how to make use of our many climates and natural conditions; and to incorporate freely into our cultivated flora many of the trees and shrubs of China and other regions, under the stimulus of the Arnold Arboretum and other agencies. The resources of the Arboretum have been placed at the command of the Cyclopedia through the careful and original work of Alfred Rehder. Similar aids have been extended from other sources, and particularly from the Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction service of the United States Department of Agriculture.

While hardy plants and outdoor gardening seem to be increasing rapidly in favor, there is a decided tendency toward the breaking-up of large fanciers' collections, in private establishments, of old-time glasshouse plants. It is now quite impossible, for example, to find in this country any large private collections of the species of begonias or of the varieties of camellias or of the show pelargoniums; orchid collections of notable extent are few. The demand of the trade is for relatively few species, and the commercial collections are mostly concerned with a few stock kinds and florists' plants, together with a small addition of annual novelties, rather than with the former long lists of many separate and interesting species and varieties. Even private places, especially private greenhouse's, are devoted very largely to cut-flowers and florists' plants. It is incumbent on a cyclopedia of this kind, however, to preserve the accounts of these begonias, orchids, palms, cacti, succulents, "stove plants," and others, even though many of them may be known to very few; and the Editor hopes that the amateur will regain his ascendancy and that collections of plants because they are plants may not perish from amongst us.

There has been great extension in recent years in commercial floriculture and in the

viii PREFACE

forcing of vegetables. We now think in terms of cropping under glass. The range of species of plants involved in these industries is relatively small, but the areas are large, the business is receiving the attention of able men and women, and the glasshouse industries are making important contributions to the lives of the people. The recent growth of the commercial fruit-growing industry is also notable. Once largely restricted to narrow regions and to "fruit belts," the growing of fruits for market has now assumed the proportions of a great industry comparable with the staple agricultural productions. An effort has been made to catch something of the spirit of all these large efforts, as well as to provide information and advice for the amateur and the home gardener.

When the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture was made, there were few special- ists in the systematic botany of cultivated plants. The Editor hopes that the publica- tion of that Cyclopedia has contributed something to the acceleration of interest in this long-overlooked subject. Howbeit, the number of competent specialists, and of those intelligently interested in the subject, is now large enough to have enabled the Editor to cover many of the important groups. The cacti have been placed mostly in the hands of J. N. Rose; a number of tropical plants have been handled anew by W. E. Safford; the orchids, aroids and bromeliads by George V. Nash; euphorbiads by J. B. S. Norton; Citrus and related genera by Walter T. Swingle; Nymphseacese by H. S. Conard; the ferns by R. C. Benedict; most grasses by A. S. Hitchcock; special groups by Norman Taylor, chiefly among the composites, palms, and tender araliads; suggestions on cultivated forms and on cultivation have been contributed by C. P. Raffill, of the tropical department, Kew; the survey of families of plants and most of the editorial work on the general introductory key have been in the hands of K. M. Wiegand; and many small groups and special genera have found new treatment by persons who have given them careful study over a considerable period of time. The results of modern scientific studies are now beginning to be positively reflected in the identification of garden plants, and in the advice for the cultivation and handling of horticultural crops and products. With so many persons partaking, it is of course impossible to secure uniformity of taxonomic handling in the various groups, but the gain of having the contributions of specialists will abundantly offset this small technical disadvantage.

And yet, it is true that very much of the work is necessarily compiled from litera- ture rather than constructed from a direct study of the plants themselves. There is no herbarium or other complete and authentic repository of all the species of plants sold by dealers. The best that can be done in very many cases is to accept the name appearing in a catalogue and to attach to it the most authentic or most adaptable description of a recognized botanical species of the same name; there is no telling whether the dealers' plant is properly determined or whether it represents the botanical species bearing the same name. It is impossible now to know how many wrong determinations, inaccurate

PREFACE ix

and insufficient descriptions, and faulty judgments have been perpetuated from author to author through long series of years. All these matters must be worked out in years to come, when the horticultural plants in the various groups shall have been systemati- cally studied with care. The Editor repeats the hope expressed in the preface written fourteen years ago "that every entry in this book will be worked over and improved within the next quarter century."

Many persons aside from the leading authors have contributed to the enterprise in the most helpful spirit. The Editor's daughter has borne much of the burden of the office and editorial detail. Gardeners, fruit-growers, florists, vegetable-growers, teachers and experimenters, botanists, and the printers, have responded with good fellowship and with something like patriotic pride. Their names will be recorded in the concluding volume; and the public that uses the book will reward them with its gratitude.

Nor should the institutions that have afforded all these persons the opportunities to make their contributions be overlooked. Aside from those agencies already mentioned, the Cyclopedia is under special obligation for the use directly or indirectly of books and collections to Cornell University, the United States Department of Agriculture, the New York Botanical Garden, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Gray Herbarium, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and others. Seed merchants, nurserymen, and other commercial establishments of standing, have been very ready with suggestions and help.

Many new illustrations have been added, representing the work of several artists. Most of the new work has been made by B. F. Williamson, New York City; F. Schuyler Mathews, Cambridge, Mass.; Miss M. E. Eaton, of the New York Botanical Garden; Mrs. M. W. Gill, Washington; C. H. L. Gebfert, Boston; and Miss Matilda Smith, of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, whose initials, will be recognized on the plates of the famous Botanical Magazine. By permission of Professor Sargent, much of the accurate and beautiful work of C. E. Faxon and others in Garden and Forest, a journal that was discontinued more than fifteen years ago and is now out of the market, has been adapted and made available for the present reader; record is made in the text of the pictures of species, at the places where they are used. Some of the work in the old govern- ment surveys of the great West has also been brought to the use of the general public.

It is not wholly with satisfaction that one puts forth a work of this magnitude. The responsibility increases with the largeness of the enterprise, for users do not readily purchase new and corrected editions of a work of this extent. Every care has been taken to present an accurate and faithful account, and this is as far as the responsibility can extend. The Editor can not expect to make another cyclopedia of horticulture; but he hopes that these six volumes will comprise another step in the collecting, assort- ing and appraising of our horticultural knowledge.

L. H. BAILEY.

ITHACA, NEW YOEK.

December 30, 1913.

CONTENTS

VOL. I

Paces

A SYNOPSIS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM . ....... 1- 78

Index to the Synopsis . . ....... 78

KEY TO THE FAMILIES AND GENERA . 79-136

Index to the Key 137-147

NAME-LIST: English equivalents of the Latin names of species .... 148-159 GLOSSARY of usual botanical and horticultural technical words .... 160-170 TEXT, A AND B 171-602

FULL-PAGE PLATES

Facing page

I. The azalea walk, Magnolia, South Carolina (in color) . . Frontispiece

II. Vegetation areas. — Aquatic, marsh and upland floras, and showing the relation

of farm lands ............ 18

III. Desert vegetation. — The giant cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) ; also bushes of Opuntia

fulgida, and in the foreground the low fine growths of Bigelovia Harticegii . 42

IV. Upland vegetation. — Trees on a wind-swept plateau . 79 V. Anemone coronaria, an old garden favorite ....... 171

VI. A good example of aquatic gardening, with water-lilies and Japane.sc> iris . . 230

VII. The flowers of the apple tree . . .313

VIII. The York Imperial apple (in color) . . 331

IX. Arboretum. — Plantation of American oaks at the Arnold Arboretum; Solidayo

canadensis underplanting .......... 352

X. Arboriculture. — Picea pungens, the Colorado blue spruce . . . 373

XI. Arboriculture. — A palm plantation, with Corypha umbraculifera in the foreground 389

XII. Asparagus, variety Colossal ... . . . 412

XIII. Bean. — The bush lima (in color) ... ... 460

XIV. Foliage begonias well grown in banks, with ferns and similar plants . . . 479 XV. The American blackberry. — The Agawam, about natural size .... 510

XVI. Botanic garden. — The formal garden of the Johns Hopkins University . . 523

XVII. The arrangement of bouquets ..... ... 534

XVIII. Canadian orchard development. — The tidewater country in Xova Scotia . . 562

XIX. Canadian orchard development. — The bench lands of British Columbia . . 575

XX. A border of hardy bulbs (in color) . . 594

EXPLANATIONS

The main account of each genus, in large type and separate paragraph for each species, represents the plants probably now in cultivation or at least of major importance.

The "supplementary lists" in smaller type at the end ' if the articles include names of plants not known to be in the trade but which may be mentioned in horticul- tural literature, and also such Latin-form names of the trade as are imperfectly understood and cannot be placed under their proper species. These parts are less critical finding-lists of other or extra species.

The Cyclopedia undertakes to account for the species in cultivation within its territory to the close of the year 1912; but in practice the introductions are included to the date of the closing of the different pages.

The size-marks on the illustrations, as (x Vz), indicate the amount of reduction as compared with natural size, this scale being determined merely by measuring the flat diameter of a drawing and not representing bulk or perspective.

AUTHORSHIP

The practice of the Cyclopedia of American Horti- culture in signing the leading and most important articles with the name of the author is here retained. The original author, so far as living or as he has desired, has revised or rewritten his articles for the present work. In very many cases, another person has now revised the articles, and the name of the reviser is indicated by a dagger (t). If the revision has amounted practically to a complete rewriting of the article, the original author's name may not appear, even though some small parts or features of the original article may be retained; this is for the purpose of safeguarding the original author as well as recognizing the work of the present author: the first Cyclopedia stands as the record of its own work.

A name in parentheses, as "(G. W. Oliver)," at the close of a paragraph, indicates that the person is the author of that particular paragraph and of no other in the article. When a person is responsible for more than one paragraph in an article, his part is set off by a sepa- rate heading in such a way that it cannot be mistaken.

It is desired to secure experts and specialists for the articles; when this has not been accomplished, the task of revision has fallen to the Editor.

Effort has been made to bring the different parts of the work into as much uniformity of plan and treatment as is possible in an undertaking of this kind; references have been compared; proofs have been submitted to two or more persons in case of difficult or doubtful sub-

jects; and the advice as to cultivation has been checked by practical growers.

NOMENCLATURE

The nomenclature follows in the main the regu- lations of the "Vienna code," being the principles, adopted by the International Botanical Congress held in Vienna in 1905. This code was adopted by the International Horticultural Congress held at Brussels in 1910, with adaptations to horticultural practice. When no combination has yet been made under the Vienna code, the prevailing usage for the particular genus (as expressed in latest monographs) is followed. That is, there is no attempt to reduce all names to one system except so far as combinations have already been made under the international rules, both because a cyclopedia of horticulture is hardly the place in which to make original combinations (except inci- dentally), and because there is little likelihood that any of the formal systems will have permanency. The subject of nomenclature, and the attitude of the Editor, will be discussed under "Names and Nomenclature" in Vol. IV. Botanical names should not be changed lightly, or for the purpose of regularizing any particular scheme or plan, or to make them always conform to an arbitrary set of rules. Botanical names do not be- long to botanists, to do with them as they will. The public has good rights in these names; and this is par- ticularly true in the names of cultivated plants, for they may then have standardized commercial value. The only stability, of course, is usage; and usage can rarely be forced into hard-and-fast regulations. In this Cyclo- pedia, the interest is in stability of names rather than in priority of nai.ies; therefore it accepts the principle of the "noniina conservanda" of the Vienna code, so far as it retains generic names that have been established in general usage for fifty years following their publication, even though the particular names in that list may not have been adopted in every instance.

Not all the changes in names arise from the applica- tion of rules of nomenclature. Many of them are the results of taxonomic studies, which make new definitions for genera and species. In this Cyclopedia, there are marked examples of such changes in the citrus genera, in the cacti, and other groups. These changes are to be expected as a result of closer studies of the various groups, of accumulation of specimens from many regions, and the progressive modification of views as to the constitution of genera and species; they are expressions of a living botany. Such changes will be particularly demanded in horticultural plants, for most of these groups have not yet been studied with critical care.

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Xll

EXPLANATIONS

PRONUNCIATION

Attention is called to the fact that the names of genera and species in this work are marked to indicate the accepted pronunciation. The indications are accent marks placed over a vowel. The accent designates (1) stress, or the emphatic syllable, and (2) the length of the emphatic vowel. Following the American custom, as established by Gray and others, a grave accent (^) is employed to designate a long vowel, and an acute accent (') a short vowel.

Thus offidndle is pronounced offici-way-li; micro- cdrpus is pronounced micrc-crfr-pus. It should be remembered that the final e terminates a separate syllable, as commii-ne, vulga-re, gran'-de. This final e takes the short sound of i, as in whip.

Ordinarily in diphthongs the mark is placed over the second letter. Thus, in aurea the au is meant to have its customary long sound, as if written awe. In eiir it has practically the long sound of u, as in Pseiido- Quina, Pseud-Acacia. Double vowels take their cus- tomary English sounds, as ee and oo. Thus, the oo in Hobkeri is to be pronounced as in hook. In most cases, the letters oi (from the Greek, meaning like to) are to be pronounced separately: if the i is the penultimate syllable (next to the last), it is long, as in yucceH-des; if the i is the antepenultimate syllable (third from the end), it is short, as in rhomboi-dea. In dioicus and monoicus, however, the oi is a true diphthong, as in moist.

These pronunciations follow, in general, the common English method of pronouncing Latin names. However, many of the Latinized forms of substantive and per- sonal names are so unlike Latin in general construction that the pronunciation of them may not follow the rule. As a matter of fact, biological nomenclature is a lan- guage of itself thrown into a Latin form, and it should not be a source of regret if it does not closely follow classical rules in its pronunciation of outlying or non- Latin names.

It has seemed best to make an exception to strict liter- ary rules in the case of personal commemorative names in the genitive: we retain, so far as possible, the pro- nunciation of the original name. Thus, a plant named for Carey is called Cd-reyi, not Carey-i; for Sprenger, Spreng-eri, not Sprenger-4; for Forbes, Forbs'^ii, not Forbfe-ii. It cannot be expected that uniform consis- tency has been attained in this matter. It is not always known how the person pronounced his name; and many personal names do not make conformable Latinized words. No arbitrary method of pronouncing personal names is likely to be satisfactory.

It may be well to add what are understood to be the long and short sounds of the vowels:

i as in cane. 6 as in cone.

i as 'in can. 6 as in run.

4 as in mete. & as in jute.

e as in met. fi as in jut.

I as in pine.

I as in pin.

y is often used as a vowel instead of i.

SPELLING

The original spelling of generic and specific names is preferred; that is, the spelling used by the person who made the name. In some cases this original orthography does not conform to the etymology of the name, particularly if the name is made from that of a person. Such a case is Diervilla, named for Diero- ville. Ideally, the name should be spelled Dierevillea, but Tournefort and Linnaeus did not so spell it.

In accordance with the best authorities, the digraph x is used in the words cserulea, caerulescens, ca;spitosa, caesia; ce is used in coelestis and coelestinum.

The type ligatures « and <K have been dropped from Latin-made names that have come into the vernacular. Thus, as a common or English name, Spiraea becomes spirea, Paeonia becomes peonia or peony, Brodui ;i becomes brodiea, Cratsegus becomes crategus.

THE KEYS

There are two groups of keys in the Cyclopedia, — the main key, in Vol. I, to leading families and genera, and the keys to the species in the different genera in all the volumes. The user of the Cyclopedia should forth- with familiarize the method of the keys. Page 79.

To facilitate the study of the plants, the species have been arranged systematically or horticulturally, under the genus, rather than alphabetically; and in large or complex genera, an alphabetical index has been supplied for rapid reference. The grouping of the species is founded preferably on horticultural rather than on botanical characters, so that the arrangement does not always express botanical relationships.

The species-keys are arranged primarily to aid the gardener in making determinations. Every effort is made sharply to contrast the species rather than to describe them. A word of explanation will facilitate the use of the keys. The species are arranged in coordi- nate groups of various ranks, and groups of equal rank are marked by the same letter. Thus, group A is coordinate with AA and with AAA, and group B with BB and BBB; and the B groups are subordinate to the A groups, and the c groups to the B groups, and so on. Moreover, whenever possible, the coordinate keys begin with the same catchword: thus, if A begins "flowers," so do AA and AAA; and this catchword is not used for keys of other rank. As an example, refer to Abutilon, page 177. Look first at A, beginning "Lvs.," then at AA, also beginning "Lvs." Under AA are the coordinate divisions B and BB, each with "Foliage" for the catchword. Under B there are no subdivisions, but under BB there are divisions c and cc, each with "Fls." for a catchword. Under c there are no subdivisions, but cc has two coordinate divisions, D, DD, each with "Blossoms" for a catchword. Again, D happens to have no division, but DD has the divisions E and EE with "Lf.-blades" as the catchword. In other words, if the plant in hand does not fall under A, the inquirer goes at once to AA. If it falls under AA, then he determines whether it belongs to B or to BB, and so on.

EXPLANATIONS

xin

A display of a scheme would stand as follows:

A. Leaves, etc.

B. Flowers, etc. c. Fruits, etc.

D. Pods, etc. DD. Pods, etc.

E. Seeds, etc. EE. Seeds, etc. cc. Fruits, etc. BB. Flowers, etc. AA. Leaves, etc.

B. Roots, etc.

c. Flowers, etc.

D. Margins of leaves, etc. DD. Margins of leaves, etc. cc. Flowers, etc. BB. Roots, etc. BBB. Roots, etc. AAA. Leaves, etc.

When the genus is large or the treatment is compli- cated, the key may be placed separately at the begin- ning rather than to be divided among the paragraphs; this allows the student to see the entire scheme or plan at once. See Acer, page 196.

ABBREVIATIONS OF BOTANICAL TERMS AND GENERAL EXPRESSIONS

caps capsule.

cidt cultivated, cultivation.

diam diameter.

E East.

fl flower.

fls flowers.

fld flowered (as few-fld.).

fr fruit.

frs. . : fruits.

/( foot, feet.

in inch, inches.

incl including.

infl inflorescence (cluster).

inlro introduced.

If leaf.

ift leaflet.

Ifts leaflets.

Ivd leaved.

Ivs leaves.

N North.

Prop propagated, propagation.

S South.

segm., segms segment., segments.

si stem.

*Ys stems.

subfam subfamily.

gyn synonym.

Trap tropics, tropical.

far. . . . . . . . variety.

W West.

t reviser (of an article).

00 (sign of infinity) . . . numerous, many.

BOOKS AND PERIODICALS

To aid the student in the verification of the work, and to introduce him to the literature of the various subjects, citations are made to the portraits of plants in the leading periodicals to which the American referrer is most likely to have access. These references to pictures have been verified, as far as possible, both in the MS. and in the proof. A uniform and regular form of citation is much to be desired, but is extremely difficult to secure because periodicals rarely agree in methods. It was decided to omit the year in most cases, because of the pressure for space, but the student who lacks access to the original volumes may usually ascertain the year by consulting the bibliographical notes below.

An arbitrary and brief method of citation has been chosen. At the outset it seemed best to indicate whether the cited picture is colored or not. This ac- counts for the two ways of citing certain publications containing both kinds of pictures, as The Garden, Revue Horticole, and Gartenflora. The figures given below explain the method of citation, and incidentally give some hints as to the number of volumes to date, and of the number of pages or plates in one of the latest volumes.

Standard works on the bibliography of botany are Pritzel's "Thesaurus" and Jackson's "Guide to the Literature of Botany;" also, Jackson's "Catalogue of the Library of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew." Render's "Bradley Bibliography," a guide to the literature of the woody plants of the world, is invalu- able. The Catalogue of the Library of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, now being printed, will afford an excellent guide to the literature of botany, particularly as it relates to woody plants.

A.F. . . . The American Florist. Chicago. A trade paper founded August 15, 1885. The vol- umes end with July. Many pictures re- peated in "Gng." (14:1524=vol. and page.)

A.G. . . . American Gardening. New York. Represents 14 extinct horticultural periodicals, includ- ing The American Garden (1888-1890). (20:896=vol. and page.)

B The Botanist. Edited by Maund. No years

on title pages. Founded 1839. Eight vols., 50 colored plates in each vol. (8:400= vol. and col. plate.) Cumulative index.

B.B. . . . Britton & Brown. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern U. S., etc. New York, 1896-98. Ed. 2 in 1913. (3:588— vol. and page of ed. 1; (ed. 2) 3:=vol. and page of ed. 2).

B.H. ... La Belgique Horticole. Ghent. 35 vols. (1851-1885).

B.M. . . . Curtis' Botanical Magazine. London. Founded 1787. The oldest current peri- odical devoted to garden plants. The vol. for 1912 is vol. 138 of the whole work. Index to first 107 vols. by E. Tonks. London. (7690=col. plate.)

B.R. . . . Botanical Register (1815-1847). Vols. 1-14 edited by Edwards; vols. 15-33 by Lind- ley. In vols. 1-23 the plates are numbered from 1-2014. In vols. 24-33 they are num- bered independently in each vol. There are 688 plates in vols. 24-33. "An Appendix to the First Twenty-three Volumes" (bound separately or with the 25th vol.) contains an index to the first 23 vols. An index to vols. 24-31 may be found in vol. 31. (1198 = col. plate. 33:70=vol. and col. plate.)

XIV B.S.D.

B.T. . C.L.A..

C.O.

EXPLANATIONS

Em. F. .

F.C. F.E.

F.M. F.R. F.S.

F.S.R.

F.W.

G. . . G.C.

G.F. . G.L. .

G.M. . Gn. .

Gng. .

Gn. M. Gn. W.

O.O.H.

. Bulletin de la Societe dendrologique de France. Paris. Founded 1906. One vol. each year. Illustrated. (1907: 198 =year and page.) . Britton. North American trees. New York.

1908. All American trees illustrated. . Country Life in America. Founded Nov. 1901. Two volumes a year. (12:75 = vol. and page.)

. Cogniaux. Dictionnaire Icoiipgraphfque des Orchidees. Colored plates, with descriptions. (6=col. plate.)

. Emerson, G. B. Trees and Shrubs of Mas- sachusetts. Boston. 2 vols. 149 plates. . The Florist. London. 1840-1884. (1884: 192=year and page opp. col. plate.) Edi- tors and title pages changed many times. Known as the Florist, Florist's Journal and Florist and Pomologist. Sometimes improperly called British Florist, i Floral Cabinet Knowles & Westcott. Lon- don. 1837-1840. 3 vols., 4to. . The Florists' Exchange. New York. A trade paper, whose pictures sometimes are re- peated in "A. G." Founded Dec. 8, 1888. (Il:l298=vol. and page.)

, Floral Magazine. London. Series I. 1861- 1871, 8vo. Series II. 1872-1881, 4to. (1881: 450 =year and col. plate.) i Florists' Review. Chicago. A trade paper. Vol. 1, Dec. 2, 1897, to May 26, 1898. Two vols. a year (4:660=vol. and page.) , Flore des Serres. Ghent. (1845-1880.) Incon- sistent in numbering, but the plate numbers are always found on the plate itself or on the page opposite. Valuable but perplexing indexes in vols. 15 and 19. 23 vols. (23:2481 =vol. and col. plate.)

. Flora and Sylva. London. 1903-1905. Edited by W. Robinson. 3 vols. (2:24=vol. and page opposite colored plate. 2, p. 31=vol. and page containing black figure.) The Floral World and Garden Guide. Lon- don. Edited by Shirley Hibberd. 1858- 1880. No plates until 1868. (1875:33=year and col. plate.)

Gardening, Illustrated. London. Founded March 1, 1880. Vols. begin with the March number. (10:25=vol. and page.) The Gardeners' Chronicle. London. Series I. (1841-1873) is cited by year and page. Series II or "New Series" (1874-1886), is cited thus: II. 26:824=series, volume and page. Series III is cited thus: III. 26:416. Two vols. a year, beginning 1874. A select index is scattered through 1879 and 1880. Consult II. 12: viii (1879), and similar places in subsequent vols. Garden and Forest. New York. 1888-1897.

(10:518=vol. and page.)

Garden Life. London. Incorporates The Gardening World after May 1, 1909. Cited only from vol. 16. (16:54=vol. and page.) Gardeners' Magazine. London. Ed. by Shirley Hibberd. Founded 1860. Cited from vol. 31 on. (42:872=vol. and page.) The Garden. London. Founded 1871. Two vols. a year through 1906. Since then one vol. (56:458=vol. and page opp. col. plate. 56, p. 458=vol. and page con- taining black figure.) An Index of the first 20 vols. was separately published. Com- plete Index of Colored Plates to end of 1897 in vol. 54, p. 334.

Gardening. Chicago. Founded Sept. 15, 1892. Vols. end Sept. 1. (7:384=vol. and page.)

. The Garden Magazine. Garden City, N. Y. • Founded 1905. (7:543=vol. and page.) Gardening World. Founded 1884. Incorpora- ted after 1909 in Garden Life. (7:ll8=vol. and page. )

Guimpcl, Otto & Hayne. Abbildungen der fremden in Deutschland ausdauerndcn Holz- arten. Berlin, 1825. 144 col. plates.

G.W. .

G.W.H. G.Z. . HBK. .

H.E. . H.F.

H.H. .

H.I. . .

H.U.. .

H.W. .

I.H.

I.T. J. .

J.C.T.

J.F.

J.H. . .

J.H.F.

. Gartenflora. Berlin. Founded 1852. (Gt. 8:1470=vol. and col. plate. Gt. 48, p. 670=vol. and page containing black figure. )

. Die Gartenwelt. Founded 1896. The first year it appeared under the title "Hesdorf- fers Monatshefte fur Blumen- uud Garten- freunde." (13:58=vol. and col. plate. 13, p. 58=vol. and page.)

. Guimpel, Willdenow and Hayne. Abbildung der deutscher Holzarten. 2 vols. Berlin 1815-20. 216 col. plates.

. Illustrirte Garten-Zeitung. Founded Oct. 1856. One col. plate in each month. (4:88— VoL and col. plate.)

. Humboldt, Bonpland & Kunth. Nova Genera et Species, etc. Paris. 1815-25. 7 vols. Folio.

. Hooker, Exotic Flora. London, 1823-7. 232 col. plates.

. L' Horticulteur Francais. 1st. series 1851- 1859. 2nd series 1859-1872. (1853:273 = 1st. series, year and col. plate. II. 1860:381 =2nd. series, year and col. plate.)

. Hough, Handbook of Trees of the Northern States and Canada. Lowville, N. Y. 1907. All trees of the region illustrated; all parts of the trees, including bark represented by photographic reproductions.

. Hooker's Icones Plantarum. London. Founded in 1837. Contains up to 1913 3,000 black plates in 30 vols. The plates with botanical descriptions in Latin. L'Horticulteur Universel. Paris. 1839-1845. 8 vols. with col. plates. The first 6 vols. edited by C. Lemaire. Vol. 7 and 8 called Deuxieme and Nouvelle serie (7:28=vol. and plate.)

. Hempel and Wilhelm. Baume und Straucher des Waldes. Wien, 1889-99. 3 vols. 60 beau- tiful col. plates and numerous black illustra- tions in the text (3:45=vol. and col. plate; 3, p. 113=vol. and page containing black figure).

L'lllustration Horticole. Ghent. (1854-1896.) (43:72=vol. and col. plate.) The volumes were numbered continuously, but there were 6 series. Series 1 = 1854-63. Series 11 = 1864-9. Series 111=1870-80. Series IV =1881-6. Series V =1887-93. Series VI =1894-6. The plates were numbered con- tinuously in the first 16 vols. from I to 614: in vols. 17-33 they run from 1 to 619: in series V from 1 to 190: in Series VI they begin anew with each vol. Valuable indexes in vols. 10 and 20. Series V in 4to, the rest 8vo.

Icones Selectee Horti Thenensis. Bruxelles, 1899-1909. 6 vols. with 240 plates. (6: 220 = vol. and bluck plate.)

Jardin; journal bi-mensuel d'horticulture gen- erale. Paris. Founded in 1887. (10:36 =vol. and page opp. col. plate; 10, p. 345 =vol. and page containing black figure.) Journal of the College of Science, Imperial Uni- versity. Tokyo, Japan. Founded in 1S*0; 33 vols. up to 1913. Contains black plates and figures in the text of plants of E. Asia. (6:3=vol. and plate.)

Le Jardin Fleuriste. Ghent. 1851-1854. Edited by C. Lemaire. 4 vols. with 430 col. plates and black figures in the text. (4:421 =vol. and col. plate; 4, p. 66=vol. and page containing black figure.) Journal of Horticulture. London. Founded in 1848 as The Cottage Gardener. Scric-s III only is cited, beginning 1880. (III. 39 : 504 =series, vol., page.) Journal de la Socifite d'horticulture de France'. Paris. Founded in 1827 as Annales et Jour- nal de la Society roy. d'horticulture de Paris. Only series IV is cited, beginning 1900. (IV. l:209=series, vol. and page containing black figure.)

EXPLANATIONS

xv

L.B.C. L.D.

J H S . Journal of the Horticultural Society of Lon- don. Founded in 1846. 9 vols. from 1846- 55. A new series started in 1866. The earlier series is cited by the year, the new series by the volume (1846: 188=ycar, page opposite

S'ate; 28:394, fig. 96=vol., page opposite ack plate or containing black figure, and fig. in case of several figures.) The Botanical Cabinet. Loddiges. 1817- 33 100 plates in each vol. Complete index in last vol. (20 : 2000=vol. and col. plate.) Loiseleur-Deslongschamps, Herbier general de ['amateur. Paris, 1816-27. 8 vols. with 574 col. plates. There is a second series, 1839-44 in 4 vols. with 309 plates which is very rare and not quoted.

LI .... Lavall6e, Arboretum Segrezianum; Icones selectae. Paris, 1880-5. 36 black plates of trees and shrubs.

Lind. . . . Lindcm'a. Ghent. Founded 1885. Folio. Devoted to orchids.

Lowe. . . Beautiful Leaved Plants. E. J. Lowe and Howard. London. 1864. (60=col. plate.)

M A. B. Freeman-Mitford. The Bamboo Gar-

den. London. 1896. (224=page.)

M.D. . . . Mitteilungen der Deutschen dendrologischen Gesellschaft. Bonn. Founded in 1892. (1912, p. 161=year and page containing black figure; 1910:l=year and page opp. col. plate.)

M D G. . . Moller's Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung. Erfurt. Founded 1886. (1897:425=year and page.)

Mn . . Meehan's Monthly. Germantown, Phila- delphia. Founded 1891. (9:l92=vol. and page opp. col. plate.)

Mn.N. . . Meehan. The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States. Philadelphia. 1878-80. 4 vols. in 2 series (II. 2:3=series, vol. and plate.)

MX Michaux. Histoire des arbres fprestiers de

I'Amerique septentrionale. Paris, 1810-13. 3 vols. with 138 plates. The English trans- lation under the title The North American Sylva has 156 plates. (3 :4=vol. and plate.)

N D . Nouveau Duhamel. Traite des arbres et

arbustes. Paris, 1801-19. 7 vols. with 488 col. plates. The first edition by Duhamel du Monceau was published in 1755 and contains only 250 black plates; the second edition was edited by several botanists and is really an entirely new work. (7:33=vol. and plate.)

O Orchis. Beilage zur Gartenflora. (1910:88=

year and col. plate. 1910, 'p. 88=year and page.)

O.R. . . . Orchid Review. London. Founded 1893. (18: 169 = vol. and plate.)

P.G. . . . Popular Gardening. Buffalo. 1885-90. (5:270 =vol. and page.)

P.M. . . . Paxton's Magazine of Botany. London. 1834- 49. (16:376=vol. and page opposite col. plate.) Vol. 15 has index of first 15 vols.

R. . . Reichenbachia. Edited by Fred. Sander. Lon-

don. Founded 1886. Folio.

R B . Revue dc 1' Horticulture Beige et Etrangere.

Ghent. Founded 1875. (23:288=vol. and page opp. col. plate.)

R.F.G. . . Reichenbach. Icones Florae Germanicae et Hel- veticae. Leipzig. Founded in 1834. 25 vols. with more than 3,000 col. plates issued up to 1913.

R.H. . . . Revue Horticole. Dates from 1826, but is now considered to have been founded in 1829. ( 1899: 596 =year and page opp. col. plate. 1899, p. 596=year and page opp. black figure.)

S Schneider. The Book of Choice Ferns. Lon- don. In 3 vols. Vol. 1, 1892. Vol. 2, 1893. Vol. 3, 1894. (l:390=vol. and page.)

S.E.B. . . Sowerby, English Botany. Ed. 3. London, 1863-1902. 13 vols. with 1952 plates. The first edition was published 1790-1814 in 36 vols. Only the third edition is quoted.

S.H. . . Semaine Horticole. Ghent. Founded 1897.

(3:548=vol. and page.) S.I.F. . . . Shirasawa. Iconographie des essences fores-

tieres du Japon. Tokyo. 1900-8. 2 vols.

with 161 col. plates. (2: 73 = vol. and

plate.) S.M. . . . Sargent. Manual of the Trees of North

America. Boston and New York, 1905.

(810=page containing black figure.) SOB. . . Schmidt. Oesterreich's allgemeine Baumzucht.

Wien, 1792-1822. 4 vols. with 240 col,

plates. (4:237=vol. and plate.)

S S . . Sargent. The Silva of North America. 13 vols. Vol. 1, 1891. Vol. 12, 1898. (12:620— vol. and plate, not colored.)

S T S . . Sargent. Trees and Shrubs. Boston and New York, 1902-13. 2 vols. 200 black plates of trees and shrubs, native and foreign. (2:147=vol. and plate.)

S Z. . . Siebold & Zuccarini. Flora Japonica. Vol. 1, 1835-44. Vol. 2 partly by Miquel, 1845-70. (2:150=vol. and plate.)

V Vick's Magazine. Rochester, N. Y. Founded

1878. Vols. numbered continuously through the 3 series. Vqls. begin with Nov. (23:250 —vol. and page.)

V.F. . . . Vilmorin & Bois. Fruticetum Vilmorinianum. Paris, 1904. (205= page containing black figure.)

V.O. . . . James Veitch & Sons. A Manual of Orchida- ceous Plants, cultivated under glass in Great Britain. London. 1887-94.

W D.B. . . Watson, Dendrologia Britanniea. London,1825. 2 vols. with 172 col. plates (2:l60<=vol. and plate.)

THE AUTHORS OF BOTANICAL NAMES

By common consent, the Latin name of a plant, in order to be considered by botanists, must first be regularly published by a reputable author in a rep- utable book or periodical. As an index to this name, the name of its author is published with it whenever an accurate account of the species is given. Thus, "Ber- beris aristala, DC." (p. 490) means that this name was made by De Candolle. This citation at once dis- tinguishes De Candolle' s Berber is aristata from any other Berber-is aristata, — for example, from Sims' (p. 492) . It is always possible that some other author may have given the same name to some other plant, in which case the older name must stand. In some cases, the fact that there are two plants passing under one name is indicated in the citation : "Berberis sinensis, Hemsl., not Poir." (p. 490, nos. 10, 11) means that Hemsley and Poiret applied the name B. sinensis to different plants. B. ilic.folia, Forst., is not the same as B. ilidfolia, Hort. (p. 492, nos. 27, 31); "Hort." means that the particular name is one in use amongst horti- culturists,— that it is a garden name.

The citation of authorities gives a clue to the time and place of publication of the species. It is an index to the literature of the subject. It is no part of the idea merely to give credit or honor to the man who made the name. It is held by some that the authority is an integral part of the name, and should always go with it; but common usage dictates otherwise, for the authority is never pronounced with the Latin words in common speech. The authority is a matter of iden- tification, not of language.

XVI

EXPLANATIONS

Following are the authors most frequently cited in this Cyclopedia:

ADANS. Michael Adanson, 1727-1806. France.

AIT. William Aiton, 1731-1793. England.

Air. f. William Townsend Aiton, the son, 1766-1849. •England.

ALL. Carlo Allioni. 1725-1804. Italy.

ANDEBS., T. Thomas Anderson, Director of Botanic Gar- den in Calcutta.

ANDB. Henry C. Andrews, botanical artist and engraver, conducted The Botanist*' Repository from 1799- 1811, and illustrated books on heaths, geraniums and roses.

A NI> BE. Edward Andre, 1840-1911, first editor of Illustra- tion Horticole, later editor-in-chief of Revue Horticole.

ANT. Franz Antoine, director of the royal gardens at Schdnbrunn, 1815.

ABK. George Arnold Walker Arnott, 1799-1868. Scot- land.

ARCHES*. Paul Aschenon, professor of botany, Berlin. 1834-1913.

ACBL. J. B. C. F. Aublet, 1720-1778. France.

Acer., AUTH. Authors; referring to usage by various or many writers.

BACKH. J. Backhous, English botanist and traveler.

BAILL. H. Baillon, author of the great natural history of plants in French.

BAKKK. John Gilbert Baker, formerly keeper of the Her- bariiftn of the Royal Gardens, Kew, England.

HALT. Charles Baltet, frequent contributor to Revue Horticole.

BABT. William P. C. Barton, 1787-1856. Pennsylvania.

BABTB. WUIiam Bartram, 1739-1823. American botanist.

BATEII. James Bateman, writer and student of orchids. England.

BEAUV. Ambroise Marie Francois Joseph Palisot de Beauvois, 1755-1820. France.

BECC. O. Beccari, Italian botanist and writer on E. Indian botany.

BECK. Lewis C. Beck, 1798-1853. New York.

BEIMN. L. He-issuer, Inspector of the Botanic Gardens at Bonn, and Instructor at Poppelsdorf. Pub. "Hand- buch der Nadelholzkuude."

BENTH. George Bentbam, 1800-1884, one of the dis- tinguished botanists of England; one of the authors of Beutham & Hooker's "Genera Plantarum."

BENTH. & HOOK. George Bentham and J. D. Hooker authors of "Genera Plantarum." England.

BEBOEB. Ernst Berger, died 1853. Germany.

BEBNH. Johann Jacob Bcmhardi, 1774-1850. Germany.

BEBT. Carlo Guiaeptx; Bertero, 1789-1831. Died between Tahite and Chile.

BIEB. Friedrich August Marschall von Bicrberstcin, 1768- 1826. German botanist; lived later in Russia.

BIOEL. Jacob Bigelow, 1787-1879. Massachusetts.

Hi. 'MI. Karl Ludwig Blume, born 1796 at Braunschweig, died 1862 at Leyden. Wrote much on Javan plants.

Bom. Desir£ Georges Jean Marie Bois, editor of Revue Horticole. Paris.

BOIM. Edmond Boissier, 1810-1886. Switzerland. Author of "Flora Orientalis" and other works.

BOJEB. W. Bojer, 1800-1856, author of a Flora of Mauri- tius. Austria.

BONPL. Aime Bonpland. 1773-1858. France.

BOBKH. Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen, 1760-1806. Ger- many.

BB., N. E. N. E. Brown, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

England. BB., R. Robert Brown, bom 1773, Scotland, died !

London. Author of many ixuportant works. BRIT. Nathaniel Lord Brittou, Director of New York

Botanical Garden, New York City. BBONU.V. Adolphe Theodore Bronguiart, 1801-1876.

France. BUCH.-HAU. Francis Buchanan, later Lord Hamilton,

wrote on Indian plants. BCCKL. Samuel Botsford Buckley, 1809-1884. United

States.

BULL. William Bull, plant merchant. London. BULL. Pierre Bulliard, 1742-1793, author of the great

"Herbier de la France" in 12 folio volumes, with 600

plates.

BUNGE. Alexander von Bunge, 1803-1890. Russia. BURIC. Johannes Burmann, 1706-1779, professor at

Amsterdam, wrote on plants of Ceylon and Malabar. Burnt, f. Nickolous Laurens Burmann, 1734-1793. Son

of Johannes. CAJUL Elie Abel Carriere, 1816-1896, distinguished French

botanist and horticulturist, editor of Revue Horticole. CABP. Robert Caspary, professor of botany at University

of Kdnigsberg. 1818-1887. CABS. Alexandra Henri Gabriel Cassini, Comte de. 1781-

1832. France.

CAV. Antonio Jose Cavanilles, 1745-1804. Spain. CEBV. Vincente Cervantes, 1759(?)-1829. Spanish botanist. CHAM. Adalbert von Chamisso, poet and naturalist,

1781-1838. Germany. OHAPM. Alvan Wentworth Chapman, 1809-1899, author

of "Flora of the Southern United States." CHOW. Jacques Denys Choisy, 1799-1859. Switzerland. CLOB. Dominique Clou, professor of botany and director

of the gardens at Toulouse. Born 1821. COON. Alfred Cogniaux, French botanist. COLEBB. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, 1765-1837. England. COLLA. Luigi Colla, 1766-1848. France. CGULTEB. John M. Coulter, University of Chicago. CUNN. Richard Cunningham, 1793-1835. Colonial bot- anist in Australia. CUNN., A. Allan Cunningham, bom 1791, Scotland, died

1839, Sidney, Australia. Brother of Richard. CUBT. William Curtis, 1746-1799. England. Founder

of the Botanical Magazine, now known as Curtis'

Botanical Magazine.

CUBTIS. Moses Ashley Curtis, 1808-1873. North Car- olina.

DC. Augustin Pyramus De Candolle, 1778-1841, projec- tor of the Prodromus, and head of a distinguished

family. Alphonse De Candolle, the son (1806-1893),

and Casimir De Candolle, the grandson, are also

quoted in this work.

DECNE. Joseph Decaisne, 1809-1882. France. D. DON. See Don, D.

Dear. HI-IK' I,.,ui-li<; Desfontaines, 1750-1833. France. DE»V. Augustin Nicaisc Desvaux, 1784-1856. France. DEVB. Willem H'-ndrik de Vricso, 1S07 1802. professor

of botany at Leyden. Wrote on medical plants and

jjhtnts of the Dutch East Indies. DICK*. James Dickson, 1738-1822, Scotch writer on

flowerless plants. DIELH. Ludwig Dicls, professor of botany, Marburg,

Germany. DILI.. Johann Jacob Dilleuius, professor of botany in

Oxford. 1087 1747.

EXPLANATIONS

xvn

DIPP. Dr. L. Dippcl, of Darmstadt, Germany. Den- drologist; pub. "Handbuch der Laubholzkunde."

DON. George Don, 1798-1856. England.

DON, D. David Don, brother of George, 1800-1841. Scotland.

DONN. James Doiiu, 1758-1813, author of "Hortus Can- tabrigiensis." England.

DOUGLAS. David Douglas, 1799-1834, collector in north- western America. Scotland.

DRCDE. Prof. O. Drude, of Dresden, Germany.

DRY. Jonas Dryandcr, 1748-1810. Sweden.

PICHESNE. Antoine Nicolas Duchesne, 1747-1827. France.

DUMORT. Barthelcmy Charles Dumortier, 1797-1878. Belgium.

LH-NAL. Michel Felix Dunal, 1789-1856. France.

DVNN. Stephen Troyte Dunn, Kcw, England.

DYER. W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, Director of Kew Gar- dens, 1885-1905, editor of the Flora of Tropical Africa, etc.

EATON, A. Amos Eaton, 1776-1842, author of a "Manual of Botany for North America," 1st ed. 1817; 8th ed. 1841.

EATON, D. C. Daniel Cady Eaton, professor at Yale Col- lege, and writer on ferns.

EHRH. Friedrich Ehrhart, 1742-1795. Germany.

ELL. Stephen Elliott, 1771-1830. South Carolina.

ELLIS. John Ellis, 1711-1776. England.

ENDL. Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher, 1804-1849, profes- sor at Vienna. Numerous works.

ENGELM. George Engelmann, 1809-1884. Missouri.

ENULER. Prof. A. Engler, of Berlin, joint author of Engler and Prantl's "Natilrlichen Pflanzenfamilien."

ESCH. Johann Friedrick Esohseholz, 1793-1831. Germany.

FEE. Antoine Laurent Apollinaire Fee, 1789-1874. France.

FENZL. Edward Feiizl, professor and custodian of botani- cal museum at Wiens. 1S08-1879.

FERN. Merritt Lyndon Fernald, assistant professor of botany, Cambridge, Mass.

FISCH. Friedrich Ernst Ludwig von Fischer, 1782-1854. Russia.

FORB. John Forbes, catalogued heaths, willows, coni- fers, and other plants at Woburn Abbey.

FORSK. Pehr Forskal, 1736-1768, collected in Egypt and Arabia.

FORST. Johann Reinhold Forster, 1729-1798. Germany. (Also Georg Forster, the son.)

FRANCH. A. Franchet, Jardin des Plantes, Paris. 1834- 1900.

FRASER, John Fraser, 1750-1811, traveled in America 1785-96. Had a son of same name.

FROEL. Joseph Aloys Froelich, 1766-1841. Germany.

F. v. M. Ferdinand von Mueller, royal botanist of Australia, author of many works on economic plants. See Muell.

GAERTN. Joseph Gaertner, 1732-1791. Germany.

GAGNEP. Francois Gagnepain. French botanist, writing chiefly on Asiatic plants.

GAUD. Charles Gaudichaud-Beaupre, 1789-1864. Prance.

r,AwL. See Ker.

UMEL. Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, 1743-1774. Russia.

GOEPP. Heinrich Robert Goeppert, 1800-1884, professor at Breslau. Wrote much on fossil botany.

GORD. George Gordon, 1806-1879, author of the "Pine- turn," London, 1858.

GRAEBN. Paul Graebner. professor of botany. Berlin.

GRAY. Asa Gray, 1810-1888, Harvard University, Massa- chusetts. America's most noted botanist.

GREENM. J. M. Greenman, writes from Harvard Uni- versity on Mexican plants. Now at the Field Museum, Chicago.

GRIFF. William Griffith, 1810-1845. England.

GRISEB., GRIS. Heinrich Rudolph August Grisebach, 1814-1879. Germany.

HARMS. Prof. Hermann Harms. Berlin.

HASSK. Justus Karl Hasskarl, born 1811. Germany.

HAYNE. Friedrich Gottlob Hayne, 1763-1832, professor at Berlin. Medicinal plants; trees and shrubs.

HAW. Adrian Hardy Haworth, 1772-1833. England.

HBK. Friedrich Alexander von Humboldt, 1796-1859. Germany. Aim6 Bonpland, 1773-1858. France. Karl Sigismund Kunth, 1788-1850. Germany. Authors of a j^-eat work on plants of the New World.

HEMSL. W. Betting Hemsley, Keeper at Kew, has written many reviews of genera of horticultural value in The Gardeners' Chronicle and elsewhere.

HENFB. Arthur Henfrey, 1819-1859. English botanist.

HENRY. Augustine Henry, Collector of Chinese plants. Cambridge, England.

HENRY, L. Prof. Louis Henry. Writer on woody plants. Paris.

HERB. William Herbert, 1778-1847. England.

HOCHST. Christian Friedrich Hochstetter, 1787-1860, described many African plants.

HOFFM. Georg Franz Hoffmann, 1761-1826. Germany.

HOOK. William Jackson Hooker, 1785-1865. England.

HOOK. f. Joseph Dalton Hooker, the son, 1817-1911. England.

HOHT. Hortorum, literally of the gardens. Placed after names current among horticulturists, but not neces- sarily all horticulturists. Often used with less exact- ness than names of authors. Frequently indicates garden or unknown origin. Many of these plants have never been sufficiently described.

HOST. Nicolaus Thomas Host, 1761-1834. Germany.

JACQ. Nicolaus Joseph Jacquin, 1727-1817. Austria.

JAUB. Hippolyte Francois de Jaubert. French botanist. Born 1798.

Jus«. Antoine Laurent Jussieu, 1748-1836, the first to introduce the natural families of plants. France.

KARSTEN. Hermann G. K. W. Karsten. German botanist, 1817-

KAHW. Wilhelm Karwinsky von Karwin, collector in Brazil; died 1855.

KACLF. Georg Friedrich Kaulfuss, professor at Halle; died 1830. He described the ferns collected by Chamisso.

KER. John BeUenden Ker, 1765 (?)-1871, botanist, wit and man of fashion. First known as John Gawler. In 1793 was compelled to leave army because of sym- pathy with French Revolution. Hia name was changed in 1804 to John Ker BeUenden, but he was known to his friends as BeUenden Ker. First editor of Edwards' Botanical Register.

KER-GAWL. See Ker.

KIRCHN. G. Kirchner, writer of the botanical part of "Arboretum Muscaviense."

KLATT. Friedrich Wilhelm Klatt, a German botanist.

KLOTZSCH. Johann Friedrich Klotzsch, 1805-1860, cu- rator of Royal herbarium at Berlin, monographer of Begoniaceffi.

KOCH. Karl Koch, 1809-1879. Germany.

KOEHNE. Emil Koehne, professor at Berlin. Pub. "Deutsche Dendrologie."

xvni

EXPLANATIONS

KOMAR. Vlademir Leontycviteh Komarov, writer on plants of eastern Asia. St. Petersburg.

HOST. Vineenz Franz Kosteletzky. Bohemian 1x)tanist.

KOTSCHY. Theodor Kotschy, assistant curator at Vienna, 1813-1866. Wrote on oriental plants.

KRANZL. F. Kranzlin, Berlin, writes on orchids in The Gardeners' Chronicle.

K. Sen. See Schumann.

KUNTH. See HBK.

KUNTZE. Otto Kuntze. German botanist; chiefly known as a strong advocate of priority in nomenclature. 1843-1907.

LAO. Mariano Lagasea, 1776-1839, one of Spain's most distinguished botanists.

LAM. Jean Baptiste Antoine Pierre Monnet Lamarck, 1744-1829, author of the Lamarckian philosophy of organic evolution. France.

LANGS. Georg Heinrich von Langsdorf, 1774-1852, Rus- sian consul-general in Brazil.

LAUTH. Thomas Lauth, 1758-1826, professor of anatomy at Strassburg, wrote a 40-page monograph on Acer in 1781.

LECQ. Henry Lecoq, born 1802, once professor at Cler- mont-Ferrand, wrote an elementary botany, a dic- tionary of botanical terms, a book on hybridization, etc.

LECONTE. John Eaton LeContc, 1784-1860. Pennsylvania.

LEDEB. Karl Friedrich von Ledebour, 1785-1851. Russia.

LEHM. Johann Georg Christian Lehmann, 1792-1860, professor at Hamburg, wrote several monographs, and described many new plants.

LEHM., F. C. F. C. Lehmann, German collector in South America.

LEICHT. Max Leichtlin, horticulturist, Baden-Baden, Germany.

LEM. Charles Lemaire, 1800-1871, works on cacti and botany of cultivated plants. Belgium.

LEVEILLE. Augustine Abel Hector Leveille, professor of botany, Le Mans, France.

L'HER. C. L. L'Heritier de Brutelle, 1746-1800. France.

LICHTST. August Gerhard Gottfield Lichtenstein, 1780- 1851. Germany.

LIND. & ROD. L. Linden and E. Rodigas, once adminis- trator and editor, respectively, of L'lllustration Hor- ticole.

LIND. J. Linden, 1817-1898. Belgium. For many years director of L'lllustration Horticole.

LIND., L. Lucien Linden, associated with J. Linden for some years on L'lllustration Horticole.

LINDL. John Lindley, 1799-1865, one of the most illus- trious of English horticulturists.

LINOELSH. Alexander Lingelsheim. Breslau, Germany.

LINK. Heinrich Friedrich Link, 1767-1851. Germany.

LINN. Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne), 1707-1778, the "Father of Botany," and author of binomial nomenclature. Sweden.

LINN. f. Carl von Linne, the son, 1741-1783. Sweden.

LIPSKY. Vladimir Ippolitovitch Lipsky, writer chiefly on plants from Central Asia. St. Petersburg.

LODD. Conrad Loddiges, nurseryman near London, con- ducted Loddiges' Botanical Cabinet from 1817-33, 20 vols., 2,000 colored plates.

Lots. Theodor Loesener, professor of botany, Berlin.

LOISEL. Jean Louis Auguste Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, 1774-1849. France.

LOUD. John Claudius Loudon, 1783-1843, an extremely prolific English writer.

LOUR. Juan Loureiro, 1715-171'fi, missionary in China.

Portugal.

MAKING. Tomitaro Makino. Tokyo, Japan. MABSH. Humphrey Marshall, 1722-1801. Pennsylvania. MART. Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, 1794-1868,

professor at Munich, monographer of palms, founder of

the great Flora Brasiliensis. and author of many works. MAST. Maxwell T. Masters, late editor of The Gardeners'

Chronicle, wherein he has described great numbers of

new plants of garden value; author of "Vegetable

Teratology," etc. 1833-1907. MATSUM. Jinzo Matsumuro. Tokyo, Japan. MAXIM. Karl Johann Maximowicz, 1827-1891, one of the

most illustrious Russian systematic botanists; wrote

much on Asian plants. MEDIKUS. Friedrich Casmir Medikus, 1736-1808, director

of the garden at Mannheim, wrote a book of 96 pages

in German on North American plants in 1792. MEISN. Karl Friedrich Meisner, 1800-1874. Switzer- land. METT. Georg Heinrich Mettenius, 1823-1866, professor at

Leipzig, wrote on flowerless plants. MEY. Ernst Heinrich Friedrich Meyer, 1791- ls.il.

Prussia. MET., C. A. Carl Anton Meyer, 1795-1855, director

botanic garden at St. Petersburg, wrote on Russian

botany. .Mi/. Dr. Karl Mez, director of the botanic garden at

Konigsberg; monographer of the bromeliads. MICHX. Andre Michaux, 1746-1802. France, but for

ten years a resident of North America. MICHX. f. Francois Andre Michaux, the son, 1770-1855.

France. MILL. Phillip Miller, 1691-1771, of Chelsea, England,

author of a celebrated dictionary of gardening, which

had many editions. MIQ. Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel, 1M1-1871.

Holland. MITFORD. A. B. Freeman-Mitford, English amateur,

author of "The Bamboo Garden." MOENCH. Konrad Moench, 1744-1805. Germany. MUNCH. See Moench. MOORE. Thomas Moore, 1821-1887, curator of Chelsea

Botanic Garden, author of "Index Filicum," and other

well-known works.

MOQ. Alfred Moquin-Tandon, 1804-1863. France. MORR. Charles Jacques Edouard Morren, of Ghent.

1833-1886.

MOTT. S. Mottet, frequent contributor to Revue Hor- ticole, translator of Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gar- dening." MTJELL. ARO. Jean Mueller, of Aargau, 1828-1896, wrote

for De C'andolle's "Prodromus," vol. 16. MUELL., C. Carl Mueller, 1817-1870, who edited vols.

4—6 of ^ ulpers' "Annuals." MUELL., F. Ferdinand von Mueller, royal botanist at

Melbourne, has written much on Australian and

economic botany. 1825-1896.

MUHL. Henry Ludwig Muhlenberg, 1756-1817. Penn- sylvania.

MURR. Johann Andreas Murray, 1740-1791. Germany. MURR., A. Andrew Murray, 1812-1878, author of "The

Pines and Firs of Japan." London, 1863. NAUDIN. Charles Naudin, 1815-1899, Ixrtanist, frequent

contributor to Revue Horticole. N. E. BR. N. E. Brown describes many new plants in

Gardeners' Chronicle. Pee Br., N. K.

EXPLANATIONS

xix

NEES. Christian Gottfried Nees von Esenbeck, 1776-

1858. Prussia. NICHOLS. George Nicholson, curator at Kew, author of

"The Dictionary of Gardening." 1847-1908. NOTT. Thomas Xuttall, 1786-1859. Massachusetts. O'BRIEN. James O'Brien, current writer on orchids in

The Gardeners' Chronicle. OLIV. Daniel Oliver, onco curator at Kew, and founder

of the Flora of Tropical Africa. ORPH. Theodor Georg Orphunidcs, professor of botany at

Athens. Died 1886. ORTEGA, OUT. Casimiro Gomez Ortega, 1740-1818.

Spain.

OTTO. Friedrich Otto, 1782-1856. Germany. PALL. Peter Simon Pallas, 1741-1811, professor and

explorer in Russia. Germany. PAMPAN. Renato Pampanini, writer on Chinese plants.

Florence, Italy. PAV. See Ruiz. & Pav.

PAX. Ferdinand Pax, professor at Breslau, Germany. PAXT. Joseph Paxton, 1802-1865. England. PERS. Christian Hendrick Persoon, 1755-1837. Germany. PHIL. Rudolph Amandus Philippi, 1808-1904. Santiago,

Chile. PLANCH. Jules Emile Planehon, professor at Mont-

pellier. France. 1833-1900. POHL. Johann Emmanuel Pohl, 1782-1834, professor at

Vienna, wrote a large book on travels in Brazil. POIR. Jean Louis Marie Poiret, 1755-1834. France. PRAIN. Sir David Prain, Director of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, since 1905.

PRESL. Karel Boriweg Presl, 1794-1852. Bohemia. PURSH. Frederick T. Pursh (or Pursch), 1774-1820.

Germany, but for twelve years in the United States. RADDI. Guiseppe Raddi, 1770-1829. Italy. RAF. Constantino Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1784—

1842. Professor of Natural history, Transylvania

University. Lexington, Kentucky. R. BR. Robert Brown, born 1773, Scotland, died 1858,

London. Author of many important works. REGEL. Eduard von Regel, 1815-1892, German, founder

of Gartenflora; Director Botanic Garden at St. Peters- burg.

REHD. Alfred Rehder, Arnold Arboretum, Massachu- setts. REICHB. Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach, 1793-

1879. Germany.

REICHB. f. Heinrich Gustav, 1823-1889, son of the pre- ceding. Orchids.

RICH. John Richardson, 1787-1865. Scotland. RICHARD. Louis Claude Marie Richard, 1754-1821.

France. RIDDELL. John Leonard Riddell, 1807-1865, professor of

chemistry in Cincinnati and New Orleans. ROB. B. L. Robinson, Director Gray Herbarium of Harvard

University, is editing "The Synoptical Flora of North

America." ROD. Emile Rodigas, for some years connected with

L'lllustration Horticole. RODB. J. B. Rodrigues, Brazilian botanist, writer on

palms and Brazilian botany. ROEM. Johann Jacob Roemer, 1763-1819. Switzerland.

Also M. J. Roemer.

ROSCOE. William Roscoe, 1753-1831. England. ROSE. J. N. Rose, assistant curator, United States

National Herbarium, Smithsonian Institution. Mexi- can plants.

ROTH. Albrecht Wilhelm Roth, 1757-1834. Physician at

Vegesack, near Bremen.

ROXBG. William Roxburg, 1759-1815. India. ROYLE. John Forbes Royle, born 1800, at Cawnpore,

died 1858 London. Professor in London. Plants of

India. Ruiz. & PAV. Hipolito Ruiz Lopez, 1764-1815, and Jose

Pavon, authors of a Flora of Peru and Chile. Spain. RUPR. Franz J. Ruprecht, 1814-1870. Russia. RYDB. Per Axel Rydberg. New York Botanical Garden. S. &. Z. See Sieb. & Zucc. SABINE. Joseph Sabine, 1770-1837. England. SAFFORD. W. E. Safford, United States Department of

Agriculture, Washington.

SALISB. Richard Anthony Salisbury, 1761-1829. England. SALM-DYCK. Joseph, Prince and High Count Salm-

Reifferscheidt-Dyck, born at Dyck, 1773, died 1861.

Wrote on Aloe, Cactus, Mesembryanthemum. SARG. Charles Sprague Sargent, Director Arnold Arbo- retum, author of "Silva of North America." SAV. L. Savatier, writer on Japanese plants. SAVI. Gaetano Savi, died 1844. Italy. SCHEIDW. Michael Joseph Scheidweiler, 1799-1861, profes- sor of botany and horticulture at Horticultural Insti- tute of Ghent.

SCHK. Christian Schkuhr, died 1811. Germany. SCHLECHT. Diedrich Franz Leonhard von Schlechten-

dahl, 1794-1866. Professor at Halle, wrote several

memoirs in Latin and German. SCHNEID. Camillo Schneider, author of "Handbuch der

Laubholzkunde. " Vienna. SCHOTT. Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, 1794-1865. Wrote

much on aroids with Nyman and Kotschy. SCHRAD. Heinrich Adolph Schrader, 1767-1836. Germany. SCHULT. Joseph August Schultes, 1773-1831. Germany. SCHUM. Christian Friedrich Schumacher, 1757-1830.

Germany. SCHUMANN. Karl Moritz Schumann, 1851-1904, professor

of botany, Berlin. Wrote much on Cactacese. SCHUR. Philipp Johann Ferdinand Schur, 1785-1848.

Germany. SCHW., SCHWEIN. Lewis David von Schweinitz, 1780-

1834. Pennsylvania.

SCHWEINF. George Schweinfurth. Germany. Born 1836. SCHWER. Graf Fritz von Schwerin, German authority on

Acer.

SCOP. Johann Anton Scopoli, 1723-1788. Italy. SEEM. Berthold Seemann, Hanover, 1825-1872. Wrote

on palms, and botany of the voyage of the Herald. SIBTH. John Sibthorp, 1758-1796, author of a Flora of

Greece. England. SIEB. & Zucc. Philipp Franz von Siebold, 1796-1866, and

Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini, 1797-1848. Germany. SIMS. John Sims, 1792-1838. England, for many years

editor of Curtis' Botanical Magazine.

SMALL. John Kunkel Small. New York Botanical Garden. SMITH. James Edward Smith, 1759-1828. England. SOLAND. Daniel Solander, 1736-1782. England. SPACH. Eduard Spach, born 1801 Strassburg, died 1879.

Author of "Histoire Naturelle des Vegetaux." SPAETH. L. Spaeth, Berlin, nurseryman, died 1913. H. L.

Spaeth, the present head of the firm. SPRENO. Kurt Sprengel, 1766-1833. Germany. STEUD. Ernst Gottlieb Steudel, 1783-1856. Germany. STEV. Christian Steven, 1781-1863. Russia. ST. HIL. Auguste de Saint Hilaire, 1779-1853. France. SWAHTZ. Olof Swartz, 1760-1818. Sweden.

XX

EXPLANATIONS

SWEET. Robert Sweet, 1783-1835, author of many well- known works, as "Geraniacesc," "British Flower Gar- den."

SWINGLE. Walter T. Swingle, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington.

TAUSCH. Ignaz Friedrich Tauseh. Died 1848. Austria.

TENOBE. Michele Tenore, 1780-1861. Italy.

THORE. Jean There, 1762-1823, physician at Dax.

THUNB. Carl Peter Thunberg, 1743-1822, wrote "Flora Japonica" (1784). Sweden.

TOD. Augustino Todaro, director of the botanic gardens at Palermo. 1818-1892.

TORR. John Torrey, 1796-1873. New York.

TRAUTV. Ernst Rudolph von Trautvetter.

TREL. William Trelease, professor of botany, Univer- sity of Illinois.

TUCKM. Edward Tuckerman, 1817-1886. Massachusetts.

TURCZ. Nicolaus Turczaninow. Died 1864.

UNDERW. Prof. Lucien M. Underwood, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N. Y., has written much on ferns, etc.

URBAN. Ignatius Urban, of the Kongl. Bot. Garten, near Berlin, writer on Brazilian and West Indian plants.

VAHL. Martin Vahl, 1749-1804. Denmark.

VAN HOUTTE. Louis Van Houtte, 1810-1876, founder and publisher of Flore des Serres.

VEITCH. John Gould Veitch, 1839-1867, and successors, horticulturists at Chelsea, England.

VENT. Etienne Pierre Ventenat, 1757-1808. France.

VERL. B. V'erlot, contributor to Revue Horticole.

VERSCH. Ambroise Verschaffelt, 1825-1886, founder and publisher of L'lllustration Horticole at Ghent, Belgium.

VILL. Dominique Villars, 1745-1814. France.

VILM. Several generations of the family of Vilmorin, Paris, seedsmen and authors of many books and memoirs on botany and horticulture. Pierre Philippe Andr6 Leveque de Vilmorin, 1746-1804. Pierre Vil- morin, 1816-1860. Henry L. de Vilmorin, died 1899.

Voss. A. Voss, author of botanical part of Vilmorin's

Blumengartnerei.

WAUL. Georg Wahlenberg, 1781-1851. Sweden. WALDST. Franz Adam, Graf von Waldstein, 1759-1823.

Axistria. WALL. Nathanael Wallich, born 1786, Copenhagen, died

1854 London. Wrote on plants of India and Asia. WALP. Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers, 1816-1853. WALT. Thomas Walter, about 1740-1788, author of

"Flora Caroliniana." South Carolina. WANG. Friedrich Adam Julius von Wangenheim, 1747-

1800. Germany. WANGN. Walter Wangerin, monographer of Cornacese.

Germany.

WARSCZ. Joseph Warscewicz, 1812-1866. WATS. Sereno Watson, 1826-1892. Harvard University. WEB. Friedrich Weber, 1781-1823. Germany. WEDD. H. A. Weddell, wrote for De Candolle's "Pro-

dromus," vol. 16, etc. WELW. Friedrich Welwitsch, 1806-1872. WENDL. Hermann Wendland, Director Royal Botanic

Garden at Herrenhausen, one of the chief writers on

palms. WIGHT. Robert Wight, writer on Indian plants. 1796-

1872.

WILLD. Karl Ludwig Willdenow, 1765-1812. Germany. WILSON. Ernest H. Wilson, collector of Chinese plants. WITH., WITHER. William Withering, 1741-1799. Eng- land. WITTM. Max Karl Ludwig Wittmack, editor of Gar-

tenflora. Professor at Berlin. WOOD. Alphonso Wood, 1810-1881. Of his "Class-Book

of Botany," 100,000 copies have been sold in

America. ZABEL. Hermann Zabel, writer on woody plants, 1832-

1912. Germany. Zccc. Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini, 1797-1848, professor

at Munich.

The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

By KARL M. WIEGAND

Most modern botanists, as well as zoologists, now think that organisms have descended, through the ages, from ancestors which differed in many ways and often markedly from the present organisms, but were in general of a less specialized type. It is, indeed, thought that the original life was of an exceedingly simple nature, and that during the countless ages its descendents have gradually diverged from one another much as the branches of a tree diverge from its trunk, until we have the enormous wealth of species and extreme diversity, and great complexity of structure exhibited by the plants and animals existing today. Just as through descent in the human race we have groups of individuals called families, the members of which are more closely related to each other by descent than to other individuals, so we have groups of related species and genera forming similar natural families. The attempt of the so-called systematic botanist of the present day is to interpret the evolutionary history of plants, to discover these natural families, and to represent this knowledge of history and relationship in a synopsis of the plant kingdom. Such a synopsis, therefore, attempts to show an actual "blood relationship, — the real genealogy of the plant kingdom. Before the theory of evolution became widely accepted as a result of Darwin's labors, systems of classification were either wholly arbitrary, and planned simply for convenience in dealing with the vast number of existing organisms (e.g., the sexual system of Linnaeus), or they were based on the morphological relation of the flower to a certain floral plan. Since, however, the floral plan depends largely on descent, these last- named systems often accidentally approached in many respects very closely to the natural systems based on evolution. Instead of placing the "highest" types of plants (the most recent) last in their classification, as is now done, the idealists placed them first, — hence the Ranunculacea;, with" parts separate and hypogynous, and there- fore most ideal, is found first in such a classification. The fusion of parts in the Compositae, and the union of parts in the Gamopetalse were thought to represent a less perfect condition. Likewise, the Apetalae, with parts lacking, were still less perfect, and therefore were placed later. The Gymnosperms were somewhat arbitrarily placed next, followed by the Monocotyledons, in which the grasses were placed last. These in turn were followed by the ferns and the lower groups. This was the system used in Bentham and Hooker's "Genera Plantarum," a great work which, notwithstanding the change in system, is still a standard authority in descriptive botany.

In the system adopted for the present synopsis, that used by Engler and Prantl in the great German work, "Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, the sequence is from the most primitive and the most ancient toward the most specialized and most modern, — from the lower algae to the fungi, mosses, liverworts, ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants. Here the Monocotyledonous line culminates in the hjghly specialized Orchidaceae, and the Dicotyledonous line in the equally specialized Compositae. These two families, therefore, are now thought to repre- sent the present culmination of nature's handiwork in the two great lines of development in flowering plants.

In the present synopsis of the Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, the treatment of large groups, sequence of families and family limits, is, except in a few cases, that of our most recent great work edited by Engler and cited above. Among the mosses and lower plants, an abridgment of the system used in Strasburger, Noll, Schenk and Karsten's "Text-Book of Botany," and other text-books, has been used. The statistics as to genera and species are taken from Engler and Prantl, and are intended as general information, and may not in all cases conform to the limitations as worked out by the different authors in the Cyclopedia. In some cases, particularly in Cactaceae, other authorities have been followed.

As no genera of the Thallophyta or Bryophyta are definitely treated in the body of the Cyclopedia, these two groups have been introduced into the synopsis largely as a background and as a proper perspective to the plant kingdom. Therefore, in these groups no divisions smaller than classes have been considered. In the Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, the plan has been to include in the synopsis every family that has at least one genus repre- sented in the body of the original Cyclopedia. A few other families of minor horticultural value have found place in the present Cyclopedia and are not included in this synopsis. Although the treatment in each case has been of necessity reduced to great brevity, it is hoped that the condensed account of important structural char- acteristics, size of family, range, and economic value will be of aid in forming a conception of what each family represents. To render this conception more vivid, a list of the important cultivated genera and their common names has been appended to the treatment of each family.

The number of species in the plant kingdom is not definitely known. It has been estimated that more than 120,000 species of Spermatophyta and more than 60,000 species of lower plants are described. According to the treatment in Engler and Prantl, these legions are classified in 640 families, of which 278 are of the higher plants and 362 of plants below the Spermatophyta. The number of known species, however, is being rapidly increased as research and exploration progress, so that the numbers given above are at best only approximate. The fig- ures are also modified by disagreement as to what are species and what are varieties, some persons recognizing more or fewer species than others in a given genus or group.

The names of the natural families are mostly derived from the names of a leading genus (as Verbenaceae, Ranunculacese) or from some marked characteristic of the group as a wh,ole (e.g., Composite, composite or com- pound flowers, Cruciferse, cross-like flowers). Commonly the family name terminates in the form acex, with the accent long on the antepenultimate syllable (e.g., Rosacese, pronounced Ro-saj/-si;ee) . The simple termina- tion x is used mostly for subfamilies and tribes, but there are marked exceptions, as in Leguminosx.

The illustrations accompanying this text are designed to show mainly such structural characteristics as are of importance in the separation of families. For this reason, floral diagrams have been freely introduced. These

1 (1)

A- SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

diagrams'are Idealized' cross-sections of the flower, and show particularly the number of parts in each floral set and their exact position, both of which are very frequently of diagnostic importance. The illustrations have been prepared by F. Schuyler Mathews under the direction of the writer. They were in part drawn from life, and in part adapted from standard texts. The most frequent sources are Baillon, "Natural History of Plants": Engler and Prantl, "Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien;" Strasburger, Noll, Schenk and Karsten, ''Text-Book of Botany": Warming, "Systematic Botany." The following is an outline of the vegetable kingdom as treated in the succeeding pages:

Division I. Thallophyta. Class I. Bacteria.

II. Cyanophycese.

III. Flagellata.

IV. Myxomycetes. V. Peridinese.

VI. Conjugatae. VII. Diatomeae. VIII. Hetcrocontae. IX. Chlorophyceae. X. Characese. XI. Phaeophyceae. XII. Rhodophyceae.

XIII. Phycomycetes.

XIV. Eumycetes. XV. Lichenes.

Division II. Bryophyta. Class I. Hepaticae.

II. Musci.

Division III. Pteridophyta. Class I. Filicinse.

Sub-class I. Eusporangiatae. Order 1. Ophioglossales.

Family Ophioglossaceae, page 7. Order 2. Marattiales,

Family Marattiaceae, 7. Sub-class II. Leptosporangiatae. Order 3. Filicales.

Family Hymenophyllaceae, 8. Cyatheaceae, 8. Polypodiaceae, 8. Ceratopteridaceae, 8. Schizaeaceae, 9. Gleicheniaceae, 9. Osmundaceae, 9. Order 4. Hydrppteridales. Family Marsileaceae, 9. Salyiniaceae, 10. Class II. Equisetinae.

Order 5. Equisetales.

Family EquisetaceaB, 10. Class III. Lycopodinae.

Order 6. Lycopodiales.

Family Lycopodiaceae, 10. Order 7. Selaginellales.

Family Selaginellaceae, 10. Division IV. Spermatpphyta or Siphonogamia (Pha-

nerogamia).

Sub-division I. Gymnospermae. Order 8. Cycadales.

Family Cycadaceae, 11. Order 9. Ginkgoales.

Family Ginkgoaceae, 11. Order 10. Coniferales. Family Taxaceae, 11. Pinaceae, 12. Order 11. Gnetales.

Family Gnetaceap, 12. Sub-division II. Angiospermae. Class I. Monocotyledoneae. 'Order 12. Pandanales. Family Typhaceae, 13.

Pandanaceae, 13. Order 13. Helobiae. Family Naiadaceae, 13.

Aponogetonaceae, 13.

Family Alismaceac, page 13. ButomaceiE, 14. Hydrocharitaceae, 14. Order 14. Glumiflorae. Family Gramineae, 14. Cyperaceas, 15. Order 15. Principes.

Family Palmaceae, 16. Order 16. Synanthae.

Family Cyclanthaceae, 17. Order 17. Spathiflorae. Family Araceae, 17.

Lemnaceas, 18. Order 18. Farinosae.

Family Bromeliaceae, 18.

Commelinaceac, 18. Pontederiaceae, 18. Order 19. Liliflora. Family Juncaceae, 19. Liliaceae, 19. Amaryllidaceae, 20. Taccacese, 20. Dioscoriaceae, 20. Iridaceae, 21. Order 20. Scitamineae. Family Musaceae, 21.

Zingiberaceae, 21. Cannaceae, 22. Marantaceae, 22. Order 21. Micrpspermae.

Family Orchidaceae, 22. Class II. Dicotyledoneae. Sub-class I. Archichlamydeae (Choripetalae and

Apetalae). Order 22. Verticillales.

Family Casuarinaceae, 23. Order 23. Piperales.

Family Saururacese, 23. Pipcraceae, 23. Chloranthaceae, 24. Order 24. Salicales.

Family Salicaceae, 24. Order 25. Myricales.

Family Myricaceae, 24. Order 26. Juglandales.

Family Juglandaceae, 25. Order 27. Fagales. Family Betulaceac, 25.

Fagaceap, 25. Order 28. Urticales. Family Ulmaceae, 25. Moraceae, 26. UrticaceaE, 26. Order 29. Proteales.

Family Proteaceae, 27. Order 30. Santalales.

Family Loranthaceae, 27. Santalaceae, 27. OlacaceaB, 27. Order 31. Aristolochiales.

Family Aristolochiacese, 28. Order 32. Polygonales.

Family Polygonaceae, 28. Order 33. Centrospermae. Family Chenopodiaceas, 29. Amarantaceae, 29. Nyctaginaceae, 29. Phytolaccaceae, 30.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

Family Aizoacese, page 30.

Portulacaceic, 30.

Basellaceae, 30.

Caryophyllaceae, 31. Order 34. Ranales.

Family Xymphaeaceae, 31.

Trochodendracese, 32.

Ranunculaceae, 32.

Lardizabalaceae, 33.

Berberidaceae, 33.

Menispermaceae, 33.

Magnoliaceae, 33.

Calycanthaceae, 34.

Annonaceae, 34.

Myristicaceae, 35.

Monimiaceae, 35.

Lauraceae, 35. Order 35. Rhoeadales. Family Papaveraceae, 35.

Fumariaceae, 36.

Cruciferae, 36.

Capparidaceae, 36.

Resedaceas, 37

Moringaceae, 37. Order 36. Sarraceniales. Family Sarraceniaceae, 37.

Nepenthaceae, 38.

Droseraceae, 38. Order 37. Resales.

Family Crassulaceae, 38.

Cephalotaceae, 38.

Saxifragaceac, 39.

Pittosporaceac, 39.

Cunoniaceae, 39.

Bruniacese, 39.

Hamamelidaceae, 40.

Platanaceae, 40.

Rosaceae, 40.

Leguminosae, 41. Order 38. Geraniales. Family Geraniaceae, 42.

Oxalidaceae, 43.

Tropaeolaceae, 43.

Linaceae, 43.

Erythroxylaceae, 44.

Zygophyllaceae., 44.

Rutaceae, 44.

Simarubaceae, 44.

Burseracese, 45.

MeliaceZE, 45.

Malpighiaceae, 45.

Tremandraceae, 46.

Polygalaceae, 46.

Euphorbiaceae, 46. Order 39. Sapindales. Family Buxaceae, 47.

Empetraces, 47.

Coriariaceae, 47.

Limnanthaceae, 48.

Anacardiaceae, 48.

Cyrillaceae, 48.

Aquifoliaceae, 48.

Celastraceae, 49.

Stackhousiaceae, 49.

Staphyleaceae, 49.

Aceraceae, 49.

Hippocastanaceae, 50.

Sapindaceae, 50.

Melianthaceae, 50.

Balsaminaceae, 50. Order 40. Rhamnales. Family Rhamnaceae, 51.

Vitaceae, 51. Order 41. Malvales.

Family Elaeocarpaceae, 51.

Tiliaceae, 52.

Family Malvaceae, page 52.

Bombacacea;, 53.

Sterculiaceas, 53. Order 42. Parietales. Family Dilleniaceae, 53.

Ochnaceae, 53.

Ternstroemiaceae, 54.

Guttiferae, 54.

Hypericaceae, 54.

Tamarieaceao, 55.

Fouquieriaceae, 55.

Cistaceae, 55.

Bixaceae, 55.

Violaceae, 56.

Flacourtiaceae, 56.

Stachyuraceae, 56.

Passinoraceae, 56.

Caricaceac. 57.

Loasaceae, 57.

Begoniaceae, 57. Order 43. Opuntiales.

Family Cactaceao, 57. Order 44. Myrtiflorae.

Family Thymelaeaceae, 58.

Elaeagnaceae, 59.

Lythraceae, 59.

Punicaceae, 59.

Lecythidaceae, 59.

Rhizophoraceae, 59.

Combretaceae, 60.

Myrtaceae, 60.

Melastomaceae, 60.

Onagraceae, 61.

Hydrocaryaceae, 61.

Haloragidaceae, 61. Order 45. Umbelliflorae. Family Araliaceac, 62.

Umbelliferae, 62.

Cornaceae, 63.

Sub-class II. Metachlamydeae or Sympetalae. Order 46. Ericales.

Family Clethraceae, 63.

Pyrolaceac, 63.

Mpnotropaceae, 63.

Ericaceae, 64.

Epacridaceae, 64.

Diapensiaceae, 64. Order 47. Primulales. Family Myrsinaceae, 64.

Primulaceae, 64.

Plumbaginaceae, 65. Order 48. Ebenales. Family Sapotaceae, 65.

Ebenaceae, 65.

Styracaceae, 66.

Symplocaceae, 66. Order 49. Contortae. Family Oleacese, 66.

Loganiaceae, 67.

Gentianaceae, 67.

Apocynaceae, 67.

Asclepiadaceae, 67. Order 50. Tubifloras.

Family Convolvulaceae, 68.

PolemoniaceaD, 68.

Hydrophyllaceae, 68.

Boraginacea?, 69.

Verbenaceae, 69.

Labiatae, 70.

Nolanaceae, 70.

Solanaceae, 70.

Scrophulariaceae, 71.

Bignoniaceae, 71.

Pedaliaceae, 72.

Martyniaceae, 72.

Gesneriaceae, 72.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

Family Lentibulariaceae, page 73.

Globulariaceae, 73.

Acanthaceae, 73.

Myoporaceae, 74.

Phrymaceae, 74. Order 51. Plant aginalea. Family Plantaginaceae. Order 52. Rubiales. Family Rubiacese, 74.

Caprifoliaceae, 74.

Valerianaceae, 75.

Dipsacaceae, 75. Order 53. Campanulales. Family Cucurbitaceae, 75.

Campanulaceas, 76.

Composite, 76.

DIVISION I. THALLOPHYTA

Plants characterized rather indefinitely by the absence of an archegonium around the egg, and the absence of the type of antheridium found among the higher plants. The plant body is rarely differentiated into organs simulating stem and leaves, and no true vascular tissue is found in the group. Formerly the Thallophyta were divided into the Algae, Fungi, and Lichens; but this, though a good classification on physiological grounds, does not indicate actual relationship so well as the modern division into fifteen classes founded on structure, as follows:

CLASS I. BACTERIA

Unicellular or filamentous organisms without green color, possibly "degenerated" from the Cyanophyceae, with no true nucleus, the cell-wall often gelatinous : repro- duction wholly asexual by division into two equal por- tions and subsequent separation (fission) ; or by asexual spores, one of which may be produced in each cell. Bac- teria are probably the smallest known organisms, some being not over .00003 inch in diameter. In form, the cells are either oblong, spherical or spiral, and may be separate or united in groups or chains, and may be either motile by means of cilia or non-motile. Bacteria, while showing little structural diversity, have become highly specialized physiologically, and it is on this basis that the species are usually distinguished. Many cause disease among animals and human beings, while others cause disease among plants. Nitrifying bacteria in the soil are of vital importance to higher plants. Bacteria and fungi are the causes of decay.

CLASS II. CYANOPHYCEAE (Blue-green Alga)

Unicellular or filamentous algae of blue-green color; true nuclei wanting: cell-wall often gelatinous: reproduction wholly asexual by fission or by asexual spores borne as in the bacteria. The blue-green algae inhabit water, damp soil, damp rocks, or damp tree trunks, where they often form filamentous or gelatinous, dark green patches. The aquatic forms prefer water containing much organic matter and hence are abun- dant in sewers. Certain species inhabit flower-pots in greenhouses, and brick walls.

CLASS III. FLAGELLATA (Flagellates)

Simple unicellular aquatic organisms intermediate between the Thallophyta and Protozoa. During a por- tion of their life they possess no cell-wall, and often show amcebpid movements. The cells contain a nucleus, pulsating vacuole, and chlorophyll; and one or more cilia are present. Some reduced forms are colorless and saprophytic. Reproduction is wholly asexual by fission and thick-walled resting spores. Found in waters of ponds and streams.

CLASS IV. MYXOMYCETES (Slime Molds)

A very distinct and independent group, formerly often classified in the animal kindgom. The plants consist of naked masses of protoplasm called plasmodia, which contain many nuclei but no chlorophyll. These are found in forests and damp, shady places. When ready to fruit, the plasrnodia move toward the light and away from the water, hence ascend grass stems, stumps and logs, where they transform into elaborately constructed sporangia. The asexual spores, each enclosed by a cell- wall, are distributed by the wind, germinate, produce a ciliated bit of naked protoplasm which swims in the soil moisture, multiply by division and at length fuse with neighboring protoplasts to form the plasmodium, which latter may be sometimes a foot in breadth. Dur- ing unfavorable weather, the plasmodia are often trans- formed into sclerotia. Plasmodiophora brassicse, which is the cause of the club-root of cabbage, is the only Myxomycete of great economic importance.

CLASS V. PERIDINE.E

A small group mostly inhabiting the sea, more rarely fresh water. They are unicellular, free-swimming organisms with nucleus, vacuole, chromatophores, and cilia. The cell is usually surrounded by a cellulose, sculptured, or pitted and transversely furrowed, wall. Reproduction is by cell-division and swarm-spores Sexual reproduction has recently been discovered. The Peridinece often form an important part of the plankton in the sea.

CLASS VI. CONJUGATE

Green filamentous or unicellular fresh-water algae: cell-wall and nuclei present : reproduction by division of the plant body, and by sexual spores, which latter result from the union of two body cells by means of a connecting tube (conjugation). Plants of the sub-group Desmidiaceae are not filamentous, but often star- shaped, lunate, or geminate in outline. The Zygne- maceas are filamentous with star-shaped (Zygnema), spiral (Spirogyra), or plate-like chloroplastids. The Conjugatae are of little economic importance.

CLASS VII. DIATOME.E (Diatoms)

Unicellular algae of very peculiar and interesting habit. The wall consists of two silicious valves, one of which fits over the other like the lid of a box. These valves are frequently very beautifully sculptured. Through division, new cells and new walls are formed, which are always smaller than before, until finally as a limit a sexual spore is produced which reestablishes the size of the cell. Diatoms inhabit stagnant water, wet rocks, and the sea. They are either free-floating or pedicelled and attached. The silicious walls will resist burning. Diatoms contain little, if any, chlorophyll, and are mostly saprophytic. A large part of the oceanic plankton is composed of Diatoms.

CLASS VIII. HETEROCONT^E, or CONFERVA

A small group of green algae, inhabiting wet soil or v/ater, but of little, if any, economic importance. The zoospores have unequal cilia; and the chloroplastids are yellowish green and oil-producing. Asexual resting spores also occur. Conjugating zoospore-like gametes are found in some genera. Botrydium and Conferva are examples of this class.

CLASS IX. CHLOROPHYCE.E

A large and important group of fresh-water, or rarely marine, algae. Plant body unicellular, filamentous, or even thalloid: the cells contain chloroplastids and pro- duce starch: reproduction sometimes vegetative, but also by asexual zoospores; sexual reproduction con-

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

sists of the the fusion of two zoospore-I ike gametes, or the fusion of one such gamete and a specialized non- motile egg. The latter condition is characteristic of the higher forms in nearly all the sub-groups of the Chlorophycese. The plant body in the Order Siphonales is peculiar in that it consists of a continuous tube with- out cross-walls. Some common genera in this class are Volvox, Chlamydomonas, Pandorina, Protococcus, Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Hydrodictyon (Water-net), Ulothrix, Ulva (Sea-lettuce), (Edogonium, Cladophora, Caulerpa, and Vaucheria.

CLASS X. CHARACE.E (Stoneworts)

Attached plants (1 inch to 1 yard in length) of fresh or brackish water, consisting of a slender stem, which bears at each node a whorl of branches, usually again bearing whorled branchlets. The internodes consist of one immense multinucleated cell often as much as 3 inches long, which is naked or inclosed in a sheath of smaller cells. The branches are similarly constructed though the cells are correspondingly smaller. Asexual spore-reproduction is absent. Sexual reproduction is by means of an egg-cell inclosed in a jacket of spiral wall-cells, and of sperm-cells inclosed in an antheridium which has a multicellular wall. These sexual organs are borne at the nodes of the branchlets. The fertilized egg and its investment becomes a thick-walled resting structure. Many species of Chara and Nitella, the only two genera, have the power to deposit lime from solution, and thus become incrusted with that substance, hence the popular name. In this way the Characese have played a part in the filling up of calcareous lakes and the production of new land. They are mostly in- habitants of calcareous waters.

CLASS XI. PH^OPHYCE^: (Brown Seaweeds)

A large group of salt-water algse, well known in all waters of the globe, but most abundant in the colder regions. Plant body attached, usually thalloid and branched, but very diverse; in some cases filamentous, in others disk-shaped or globular. The larger forms of Laminaria are sometimes 200 feet long. The chroma- tophores of the PhseophyceEe contain a brown pigment which gives to these plants a brown or yellowish color instead of green. The thallus is often very tough and cartilaginous, to resist the waves. Zoospores are often produced. In sexual reproduction, the gametes are either similar and motile, rarely non-motile, or more often the sperm is motile while the egg is much larger and non-motile. Details of structure in respect to reproduction, however, are very great.

The thallus of various species of Phseophyceze yields iodine and soda. Some species (e.g., Laminaria sac- charina) yield mannite and are used in the Orient for food. The dried stalks of L. digitata and L. Cloustoni have been used in surgery. Fucus and other genera are used as manure.

One species, Sargassum bacciferum, has accumulated in great quantities in the Atlantic Ocean between the Bermuda Islands and the Spanish coast, in the so-called "Sargasso Sea."

CLASS XII. RHODOPHYCE^E (Red Seaweeds)

Mostly marine algae, a few only inhabiting fresh water, widely distributed, but most abundant in the tropics and temperate region at lower depths. The thallus is very diverse, filamentous, branched, often thalloid, attached by holdfasts, and red, violet, or purple in color, rarely green. True starch is not found. Asexual spore-reproduction is frequent. These spores are non-motile and produced in fours (tetraspores). Sexual reproduction is by dissimilar gametes, the antheridium becoming without change a single non- motile sperm-cell. The egg-cell is prolonged upward into a slender tube (trichogyne). The fertilized egg

by division gives rise to a globular mass of short fila- ments (cystocarp) which produce asexual spores. These spores in turn give rise to the mature plant. The cystocarp and its spores, thus following fertilization, suggest the alternation of generations found in the mosses and liverworts and all higher plants. About 300 species of Rhodophycea: have been described.

Carragheen, or Irish moss, used in jellies and pud- dings, is the dried thallus of Chondrus crispus and Gigar- tina mamillosa of northwestern Europe. Agar-agar, used in the preparation of culture media in bacteriology and mycology, is obtained from various species of this group.

CLASS XIII. PHYCOMYCETES.

A large group of parasitic or saprophytic organisms (fungi), without chlorophyll: thallus (mycelium) of much-branched filaments (hyphse); usually without cross-walls (non-septate), as in the algal group Si- phonese: asexual reproduction by motile or non-motile spores which are usually borne in sporangia, and by conidia which are cells abstricted from the tips of specialized hyphse: sexual reproduction diverse, either by the conjugation of similar gametes, or by the con- jugation of a specialized antheridial branch (male) and an enlarged oogonial branch (female) which contains the egg; free sperm-cells are rare. The order Obmy- cetes, with differentiated gametes, contains the following important fungi: Saprolegnia (water-mold), a whitish, aquatic mold growing on decaying plants, insects, or living fishes; Olpidium brassicx, parasitic in cells at the base of the stem of young cabbage plants causing their death ; Phytopkthora infestans (potato disease) ; Plasmo- para viticola, downy or false mildew of the grape; Albugo Candida, white rust of Cruciferse; Pythiwmde Baryanum, causing damping off of seedlings. Order Zygomycetes, with similar gametes, contains Mucor mucedo, white mold of bread, fruits, etc. ; Rhizopus nigricans, a mold on bread, fruit, etc.; Empusa muscse, parasitic on houseflies, causing their death and producing a white halo about them on the surface where they die.

CLASS XIV. EUMYCETES

A very large and important group of saprophytic or parasitic organisms (fungi) without chlorophyll: thallus (mycelium) composed of fine tubular threads, which are septate: sexual organs usually obscure or apparently wanting: asexual reproduction by spores or by conidia, a modified form of which is termed basidia. The conidia and basidia do not always represent homolo- gous organs. The group is divided into Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. The Ascomycetes are character- ized by a' group of usually 8 spores inclosed in a unicel- lular sac (ascus), which is produced immediately after the imperfect sexual fertilization. The asci are borne in spherical bodies (perithecia) or in open cups (apothecia). The Perisporiaceje, Discomycetes, Pyrenomycetes, and Tuberaceae are orders within this sub-class. Among the many important economic fungi belonging here are the following: Erysiphose (Downy Mildews); Aspergil- lus and Penicillium (Fruit Mold, Blue Mold); Mor- chella (Morel), edible; Nectria (Currant Cane Rust and Tree Canker) ; Claviceps purpurea (Ergot) , parastic in the ovaries of grains; Taphrina (including Exoascus), caus- ing witches' broom, leaf curl of peach, plum pockets, etc.; Saccharomyces (Yeast), causing fermentation in saccharine solutions. The Basidiomycetes are characterized by the production of four spores on a special hyphal tip or thread (basidium). Each spore is raised on a minute slender stalk (sterigma). These spores, in some cases, if not in all, follow immediately after a nuclear fusion, which probably represents a reduced sexual act. In this group are the Ustilaginese (Smuts), infesting the ovaries of grains, etc.; the Ure- dinese (Rusts), which infest a wide variety of culti- vated and wild plants, and among which may be men-

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

tioned the wheat rust; the Hymenomycetes (Mush- rooms, Toadstools, and Bracket Fungi), which are saprophy tic or inhabit timber; and the Gasteromycetes (Puff-balls), which are saprophy tic. The rusts exhibit alternation of generations to a most remarkable degree, the different generations often inhabiting different host plants and possessing a wholly different appearance, as well as a wholly different method of spore-formation. The Hymenomycetes are saprophytic, except the genus Exobasidium which inhabits the living foliage of various plants, the genus Armillaria which infests living tree- trunks, and many genera of the Polyporacese (Bracket Fungi) which also attack the wood of living trees. The last-mentioned fungi, including Armillaria, inhabit the trunks and branches of forest trees, causing their death.

CLASS XV. LICHENES (Lichens)

Green, gray or highly colored plants of very diverse habit and habitat, either thalloid, fruticose or crusta- ceous, and growing on the soil, bark of trees, rocks, or rarely on foliage: propagation by division of the thallus or by the separation of special minute powdery parts (soredia): spore-reproduction by ascospores borne in perithecia or apothecia, rarely by basidiospores. The lichen thallus is not a single organism, but is prob- ably a symbiotic structure, comprised fundamentally of fungus hyphse between which many unicellular green algse are distributed, usually in a definite fashion. The fungi belong to the Ascomycetes in the great majority of cases, rarely to the Basidiomycetes. The algae may belong to the Chlorophycese, in which case they are unicellular, or to the Cyanophycea;, in which case they are either unicellular or in chains. Because the symbiotic structure behaves as a unit, it has been decided to continue to treat the lichens as a class by themselves, rather than to consider the algal and fungal components Independently in their respective groups. Except as soil-producers, lichens are of little economic importance: Cetraria islandica furnishes Iceland moss; Sticta •pulnumaria was once used in medicine; Cladonia rangiferina furnishes the main food of the reindeer in Lapland, and, possibly, of other arctic animals; Roccella tinctoria of Africa and the East Indies is the source of the chemical indicator, litmus and of the dye orchil or orseille.

DIVISION II. BRYOPHYTA

(Mosses and Liverworts)

Small green plants of simple structure, either thalloid or differentiated into stem and leaves: true roots wanting: vascular tissue absent: alternation of gen- erations well developed, the gamete-bearing generation dominant: female gamete (egg) inclosed in a flask- shaped multicellular archegonium : male gametes (sperm- cells) inclosed within a multicellular antheridial wall: fertilized egg producing the spore-bearing generation (sporogonium) which consists of a parasitic or semi- parasitic capsule usually borne upon a seta.

The Bryophytes are divided into two great classes, namely the Hepatic* (Liverworts) and the Musci (Mosses). Each of these in turn is divided into several orders, which, as usual, contain one or more families. Mosses and liverworts are widely distributed over the earth, the latter seeming to prefer limestone regions.

The Hepatic* are characterized by a spore-bearing generation consisting of a stalked or sessile simple cap- sule, which contains spores and elongated sterile elaters, and splits • into teeth or valves at maturity. The plant body (gamete-bearing generation) 'consists either of a thalloid, algal-like, dichotomously branching, ribbon-like structure, or of a slender axis bearing the very thin leaves, one cell in thickness, and destitute of a midrib. The leaves are usually arranged in two lateral rows, with often a third row of small dissim-

ilar leaves on the under side, so that the shoot is strongly dorsi-ventral. The lateral leaves frequently bear at the base a curious lobe that is infolded or even flask-shaped, and probably aids in the conserva- tion of water on the dry rocks and tree trunks which many of these plants frequent. The under side of the stem or thallus is usually provided with rhizoids that take the place of roots. The thalloid liverworts are inhabitants of damp or wet situations, some being aquatic: in the North, they are found on damp soil, wet rocks, or among damp moss. The majority of foliose liverworts inhabit similar places, only comparatively few genera and species being xerophytic. Filaments of the alga, Nostoc, penetrate the cavities in the thallus of Anthoceros and there form endophvtic colonies. Veg- etative reproduction is accomplished by the branching of the thallus, or by the production of special buds, called gemma;, either on the edge of the loaf or thal- lus, or in special cup-like receptacles borne on the sur- face of the thallus.

The Hepatica; are divided into four principal orders as follows: Order I. — Ricciales. Thalloid, floating or amphibious: sexual organs sunken in the thallus: capsule sessile, thin-walled, endophytic, irregularly dehiscent. Order II. — Marchantiales. Thalloid: arch- egonia and antheridia usually borne on special branches of the thallus: capsule often stalked, usually regularly dehiscent. Marchantia was formerly used as a remedy in diseases of the liver, hence the name liverwort. Order III. — Anthocerotales. Thalloid: one chloroplast in each cell: sexual organs superficial: capsule very slender, chlorophyll- and stomate-bearing, continuing to elongate by basal growth. Order IV. — Jungerman- niales. . Thalloid or foliose: capsule usually splitting to the base into four valves.

The Musci (Mosses) differ from the Hepaticse mainly in the more elaborate capsule, which in the young state commonly contains chlorophyll, is provided with stomates, and contains a central column of sterile tissue (columella) encircled by the spore -bearing chamber. The dehiscence of the capsule is apical and transverse, and consists in the formation of a lid (oper- culum) which falls off exposing the mouth of the an- nular spore-chamber. This mouth is surrounded by a single or double row of numerous hygroscopic teeth (peristome), which, by their bending, regulate the escape of snores in wet and dry weather. No elaters are produced. The sporogonium of the moss is, there- fore, not only a more independent structure from the standpoint of nutrition than is that of most liverworts, but is constructed along wholly different lines. On the summit of the capsule is usually found a delicate, diversely shaped, hood-like cap not organically con- nected with it and easily detached, called the calyptra. This is the enlarged upper portion of the archegonium, which, after rupture, is borne aloft on the summit of the growing sporogonium. The plant-body (gamete- bearing generation) is never thalloid; and the leaves, which are provided with a midrib, are frequently of several cells in thickness. The germination of the spore does not result at once in a moss plant, but produces a creeping filamentous branched, algal-like growth (protonema) on which at length are borne the buds that give rise to the moss-stem proper.

The Musci are subdivided as follows: Order I. — Sphagnales (Bog or Peat Mos.so.-0. Structure of stem and leaf peculiar, consisting of dead, tracheid-like cells without protoplasm and provided with pits or thicken- ing bands, regularly interspersed among slender, living cells containing protoplasm and chloroplastids. Under ordinary conditions, the tracheid-like cells are filled in part with air, and hence the plant has a grayish hue. In the presence of rain or abundant soil-water, the water is drawn into the cells by capillarity until the still apparently dry plant contains a surprisingly large quantity of water, which will flow out on squeezing

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

in the hand. The capsule possesses no peristome, and the spore-sac is continuous over the top of the colu- mella. Peat mosses are large, branched plants growing in extensive colonies in wet or damp situations in northern countries. They are especially abundant on the floating moors which surround certain small ponds, and by their decay play an important part in the filling in of these ponds. They continue to thrive in these "bogs" until the conditions at length become too dry. Peat mosses, therefore, form a large component of "peat," and in this way the Sphagnales have played a very interesting part in the evolution of the present surface of the earth. Because of the power to retain water, sphagnum is of economic importance to nursery- men and florists, who use this moss extensively in pack- ing stock for shipment, in germinating seeds, and for other purposes. Some species of sphagnum are eaten in Lapland by the reindeer. Mixed with the hair of the reindeer, they are used for stuffing mattresses. Order II. — Andreales. A small group of rock mosses. The spore-chamber is continuous over the summit of the columella, and the capsule dehisces by four longitudinal slits. Order III. — Phascales. A small group of minute terrestrial mosses with few leaves, but a persistent protonema: capsule indehiscent, at length decaying. Order IV. — Bryales. A large group containing the majority of the mosses: capsule dehiscing by an oper- culum; peristome present; spore-sac interrupted at the summit by the columella. Certain species were formerly used as astringents and diuretics. Leskea sericea has been used to stop the flow of blood from wounds. Species of Hypnum and Fontenalis are used in Norway and Sweden, by the peasants, to fill cracks in the walls of huts. Hypnum triquetrum is sometimes used in place of sphagnum for packing plants.

With the exception of sphagnum, the mosses and liverworts do not seem to be in the trade.

DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA

Eggs borne in archegonia: sperm-cells in antheridia: alternation of generations clearly evident, the spore- bearing generation dominant: true vascular tissue present; also true roots.

CLASS I. FILICIJSLE (Ferns)

Sub-doss I. Eusporangiatas. Sporangial wall several cells in thickness

Order 1. OPHIOGLOSSALES

1. Ophioglossaceae (from the genus Ophioglossum, adder's tongue, in reference to the fruiting spike). ADDER'S-TONGUE FAMILY. Fig. 1. Plants small or of medium size, often somewhat fleshy: leaves various, entire or often much divided, not circinate in vernation; veins forking or netted; base of leaf cap-like, enclosing the succeeding leaf: sporangia scattered, borne on the margin of the much modified fertile portion of the leaf, which is usually separated from the sterile by a stalk, globular in form; the walls several cells in thick- ness; an mil us wanting; dehiscence by a straight hori- zontal or vertical fissure: prqthallium subterranean, tuber-like, chlorophylless, containing mycorrhizal fungi, saprophytic.

Three genera and about 50 species occur, of general distribution. Several species of Botrychium and one of Ophioglossum are found in the eastern United States. The sheathing base of the leaf, the solitary, thick- walled sporangia without an annulus, and the subter- ranean saprophytic prothallia are important character- istics.

Two genera are sometimes grown in North America: Botrychium (Moonwort Ferns, Grape Ferns) and Ophioglossum (Adder's Tongue).

Order 2. MARATTIALES

2. Marattiaceae (from the genus Utaratlia, named in honor of Maratti, Italian botanist). MARATTIA FAM- ILY. Fig. 1. Stately tropical ferns with thickened, often erect, stems: leaves usually very large, from nearly entire to several times pinnate, circinate, inclosed when young by the prominent stipules: indusium present or absent: sporangia in sori on the under face of the leaf, either separate or united into a capsule-like body (syn- angium); the walls several cells in thickness; annulus wanting, or greatly reduced; dehiscence by clefts, pores, or, in case of the "synangia," first by valves and then by slits: prothallium a green heart-shaped thallus on the surface of the soil, sometimes branched.

Four genera and about 23 species are found in tropical regions, but extend into the south temperate

1. MAHATTiACEjE: 1. Angiopteria, sorua. 2. Marattia, synan- gium. OpHiooLO8SACE.E: 3. Ophioglossum, a, whole plant; 6 dehiscing sporangia. 4. Botrychium, sporangia. EQUISETACEJE

5. Equisetum, a, cross-section stem; fr, fruit stem; c, sterile stem d, sporophyll and sporangia; e, spore and elater. LYCOPODIACE.E.

6. Lycopodium, a, fruit branch; 6, sporophyll and sporangium. SELAOINELLACE*E: 7. Sclanginella, a, fruit spike; 6, spore showing prothallium and archegonia.

zone. The fern-like habit, the prominent stipules, the thick-walled sporangia borne in sori or synangia, the absence of a well-developed annulus, and the green thalloid emersed prothallia, are important characteris- tics. The family is probably very old geologically.

The thick, starchy stem of Angiopteris and some Marattias are locally used for food. The fleshy stipules of Marattia frarinea are eaten; the spicy leaves of some species are used to season food. The slime from the stipules of M. Douglasii is used medicinally by the Hawaiians.

Three genera are known to American horticulture and are occasionally grown as ornamental greenhouse plants: Angiopteris, Danaea, and Marattia, represent- ing less than a half-dozen cultivated species.

8

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

Sub-class II. Leplosporangialse. Sporangial wall one cell in thickness

Order 3. FILICALES

3. Hymenophyllacese (from the genus Hymeno- phyllum, signifying membrane-leaved). FILMY-FERN FAMILY. Kg. 2. Very delicate ferns, small or minute in size, frequently epiphytic: leaves entire, 1-3-pinnate. or dichotomously divided, rarely thalloid or orbicular, reduced in thickness to a single layer of cells between the veins, and thus often resembling the leaves of mosses; stomates absent; ultimate or all veins dichoto- mous: sori marginal, raised on a slender columnar pro-

2. HYMENOPHYLLACE-E: 1. Hymenophyllum, section of sorus. CYATHEACE.E: 2. Alspphila, sporangium. POLYPODIACE/E: 3. Aa- pidium, o, pinnule with sori; 6, section of sorus. 4. Adiantum, prothallium with young fern plant. 5. Polypodium, a, archego- nium; 6, antheritiium; c, sperm. 6. Peranema, sporangium. GLEICH- ENIACE&: 7. Gleichenia, sporangium.

jection of the veinlet: indusium cup-shaped: sporan- gium thin-walled; dehiscence vertical or oblique ; annulus complete, horizontal: prothallium thalloid or filamentous, often much branched.

There are 2 genera and about 200 species growing upon rocks and trees in the damp, shady forests of the tropics, and in New Zealand. One species reaches central Europe and another reaches Kentucky. The family is readily distinguished by the delicate leaf, pedicelled sorus and equatorial annulus.

The Hymenophyllacese require a warm and very humid atmosphere, and, therefore, most species are difficult to cultivate.

Several species of Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes are in cultivation in America.

4. Cyatheaceae (from the genus Cyathea, signifying cup+contain, in reference to the cup-shaped indusium). CYATHEA FAMILY. Fig. 2. Usually tree ferns with large, much-compounded, circinate leaves: sori globu- lar, borne on the under side of the leaf: veins forking: indusium usually present, bi-valvular, cupular or uni- lateral: sporangia thin-walled, sessile or short-pedi- celled, obovoid ; annulus complete at the pedicel, oblique, dehiscence transverse: prothallium ordinary, green.

This family has 7 genera and about 300 species, of which 115 belong to Cyathea, 112 to Alsophila, and 44 to Hemitelia. They are distributed in the tropics of

both hemispheres. The Cyatheacese is closely related to the Polypodiaceas from which it differs only in the slightly oblique annulus which passes just at one side of the insertion of the pedicel, and is therefore unin- terrupted at that point.

The dense, woolly covering of the stem of many species is sometimes collected for stuffing pillows. The starchy pith of some New Zealand Cyatheaceae was formerly used for food. In India, an intoxicating drink is pre- pared from the pith. Several species are important greenhouse ferns.

Five genera at least are listed in the American trade: Alsophila, Cibotium (Scythian Lamb), Cyathea, Dicksonia, Hemitelia.

5. Polypodiaceas (from the genus Polypodium, signi- fying many feet, in allusion to the branched rootstock of some species). POLYPODY FAMILY. Fig. 2. Ferns of very diverse habit, rarely arborescent: leaves of nor- mal texture, entire or pinnatifidor multisect, circinate; veins forking: sori mostly on the under side of the leaf; indusium peltate, fringed, capillary, cupular, elongated, unilateral or wanting: sporangia thin- walled, long- or short-stalked; annulus vertical, interrupted by the pedicel; dehiscence transverse: prothallium thalloid, green, growing upon the surface of the soil, mostly bisexual.

Polypodiaceas has more than 100 genera and about 4,000 species of wide distribution; especially abundant in humid regions and in forests. The largest genera are: Dryopteris (or Aspidium), 450 species; Polypodium, 500 sp.; Asplenium, 150-200 sp.; Elaphoglossum, 80- 100 sp.; Adiantum, 80 sp.; and Pteris, Blechnum, Polystichum and Aspidium about 50-70 species each. The family is most closely related to the Cyatheacese. The presence of sori, the thin-walled sporangium with vertical interrupted annulus and transverse dehiscence are distinctive. This comprises the larger number of ferns, and is often called the Fern Family.

Some of the most striking variants are the walking- leaf fern with undivided lanceolate leaves which take root at the apex and repeat the process several times, all the plantlets remaining for a time connected; the hart's -tongue fern with broadly lanceolate - oblong, entire frond; the epiphytic staghorn fern with erect, forked, fertile fronds and orbicular entire, sterile fronds closely imbricated over the short stem and support. In many species the fertile and sterile fronds are dimorphic. The stems of some species are slender and climbing; others long, slender and creeping; some are very stout and erect (tree ferns) .

The ferns are of little economic importance except as ornamental plants. The starchy rootstocks of some species are eaten locally, as are also the young shoots. The rootstock of Dryopteris (Aspidium) Filix-mas is a reputed vermifuge.

About 60 species are in cultivation in America. Among these are: Adiantum (Maidenhair Fern); Aspidium (Shield F.); Asplenium (Spleenwort) ; Camp- tosorus (Walking-leaf F.); Dennstcedtia (Dicksonia) (Fragrant F.); Onoclea (Sensitive F., Ostrich F.); Peltea (Cliff Brake); Phegopteris (Beech F.); Platyce- rium (Staghorn F.); Polypodium (Polypody F.); Polystichum (Holly F., Christmas F.) ; Pteris (Common Brake); Scolopendrium (Hart's-tongue F.). • 6. Ceratopteridaceae (Parkeriaceae) (from the genus Ceratopteris, meaning horn-fern). CERATOPTERIS FAMILY. Aquatic ferns rooting in the mud: leaves of two sorts, the ones less divided with broader segments and veins more or less anastomosing; the more aerial fertile ones much divided, with narrow segments, and revolute margins which later almost completely inclose the scattered sporangia: indusium wanting: sporangia globular, thin-walled with a very diverse broad nearly complete or nearly wanting annulus; rarely the annulus wanting; dehiscence transverse: prothallia unisexual, thalloid; antheridia not superficial.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

9

Only one genus and a few species of tropical distri- bution are known, the only aquatic species among the true ferns. The habit, the absence of son, the variable annulus, and the sunken antheridia are distinctive.

This fern is sometimes cooked and eaten as greens.

One or two species are frequently grown for aquaria and aquatic gardens.

7. Schizaeaceae (from the genus Schizxa, cleft, alluding to the leaves). CURLY-GRASS FAMILY. Fig. 3. Ferns of very diverse habit, some extremely small, others climbing: stem mostly oblique or horizontal: leaves very diverse, usually pinnate or palmate; veins forking: sporangia thin-waUed, usually scattered, at first mar- ginal, later sometimes exceeded by the margin of the frond, often appearing spiked or panicled, sessile; no apparent indusium; annulus transverse, apical, com- plete; dehiscence vertical; fertile portion of the frond usually much modified: prothallium of all genera ex- cept Schizaea ordinary; that of the latter genus fila- mentous and extremely branched, resembling that of the filmy ferns.

In this family are 4 genera and about 70 species, mostly tropical, rare in the colder regions. Two species reach the eastern United States, one of which extends to Newfoundland. The solitary sporangia and trans- verse apical annulus are important characteristics.

The curly grass (Schizxa pusilla) inhabits bogs, where it may form extended mats of dry, woolly "grass" 1-3 inches high. The sterile leaves are without lauiiiur. Lygodium palmatum is the "climbing fern" of eastern America. The leaf, not the stem, of this plant has unlimited growth, and twines.

Four genera are in the American trade: Anemia Lygodium, Mohria, and Schiza?a.

8. Gleicheniaceae (from the genus Gleichenia, named in honor of W. F. Von Gleichen, 1717-1783). GLEICH- ENIA FAMILY. Fig. 2. Terrestrial ferns with peculiar foliage: leaves several times forking owing to the arrested growth of the main divisions which develop in succeeding seasons, only the ultimate branches pinnate (except in one genus): indusium none: sporangia in sori on the under side of the leaf, thin-walled, sessile, pear- shaped; annulus complete, running obliquely around the back and over the top; line of dehiscence extending vertically down the ventral side from a constricted apical place in the annulus: prothallium ordinary, green.

Two genera and about 26 species occur in tropical lands and the south temperate zone. The family is related to the Schizaeacese but the habit is very different. The peculiar forking of the leaves, as well as the unusual annulus and peculiar dehiscence, are characteristic.

A few species of Gleichenia are in cultivation in North America.

9. Osmundaceae (from the genus Osmunda, derived from Osmunder, the Saxon name of the god Thor). OSMUNDA FAMILY. Fig. 3. Ferns of ordinary habit, rarely aborescent: rhizome mostly vertical, thick: leaves large, circinate, 1-3-pinnate, rarely thin and stomate- Irss; petiole somewhat sheathing at the base; fibro- vascular bundle 1; veins forking: indusia wanting: sporangia scattered on the under side of the ordinary leaf, or on the margin or on both sides of modified fertile portions of the leaf, thin-walled, short-stout- pedicelled, globular; annulus imperfect, consisting of a group of cells on one side; line of dehiscence vertical, extending from this group up over the summit: prothal- lium ordinary, green.

There are 3 genera and 10 or 12 species of general distribution, and others in the Australian region. Three species occur in the eastern United States. The family is related to the Gleicheniacese and Schizaeaceae. The peculiar dehiscence, and the scattered sporangia with the annulus consisting of a group of cells, instead of a ring, are distinctive.

The family has practically no economic importance, except as ornamental plants, except that the root

masses are used as matrix on which to grow orchids and other epiphytic plants (see Osmundine). Some have been used in medicine, although their virtues are questionable. The family contains some of our most stately native ferns.

All three genera are in American horticulture: Leptopteris (leaves thin and no stomates); Osmunda (Royal Fern, Cinnamon Fern), Todea (Grape Fern).

Order 4. HYDROPTERIDALES

10. Marsileaceae (from the genus Marsilea, in honor of Giavanni Marsigli, or Aloysius Marsili, Italian.naturul- ists.) MARSILEA FAMILY. Fig. 3. Perennial marsh or aquatic plants with filiform and creeping rhizomes: leaves all from rootstocks, cireinate; rachis without blade or with four leaflets borne together at the apex; leaflets, when present, fan-shaped, rounded at apex; veins dichotomous: sporangia of two sorts, macro- sporangia bearing macro-spores which give rise to egg- cells, and microsporangia bearing microspores which give rise to sperm-cells, both borne together in tiny chambers (sori) in globular capsule-like conceptaclea (sporocarps) which arise from the rootstock or lower portion of the leaf, and are either stalked- or sessile:

3. Srit!7..K\cF..F.: 1. Aneimia, sporangium. OBMUNUACE.E: 2. Osmunda, sporangium; a, front view; 6, back view. SALVINIACE.E: 3. Salvinia, a, whole plant; b, section of sporocarps showing sporangia. MARSILEACE*: 4. Marsilea, a, whole plant; 6, sporo- carp germinating; c, sporocarp emitting gelatinous thread with son. 5. Pilularia, a, cross-section of sporocarp; b, sporocarp emitting sporangia.

male and female prothallia very much reduced, remain- ing inclosed within the spore-wall, which in the case of the macrospores early becomes ruptured on one side to expose the archegonia.

Two genera (Marsilea and Pilularia) and about 60 species occur, of which 52 or 54 belong to Marsilea. The distribution is general, though mainly tropical. Marsilea is represented in the United States by one native and one introduced species. The family is closely related to the Salviniacese, but the peculiar habit and unusual sporocarps are distinctive.

10

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

At maturity, a gelatinous mass escapes from the sporocarp, and on this mass the sori are borne in somewhat characteristic fashion in different species. The leaflets of the clover-like leaves of Marsilea, in emersed forms, show sleep movement, as do those of clover. These leaflets float upon the water, to the vary- ing depths of which the petioles accommodate them- selves; but the plant may grow emersed on mud, in which case the petioles are erect like clover. The leaves of Pilularia are filiform, pointed, and destitute of blade.

In Australia, the sporocarps of Marsilea Nardu and M. Drummondii, which contain much starch and other nutritious material, are used by the natives for food. They are ground into a powder, mixed with water and baked. Fish and marsilea "fruits" form almost the sole food of some tribes.

One species, Marsilea quadrifolia, is in cultivation in America for aquatic gardens.

11. Salviniaceae (from the genus Salvinia in honor of A. M. Salvini, Italian scientist). SALVINIA FAMILY. Fig. 3. Small, floating aquatic plants, resembling large Lemnas (Salvinia) or foliaceous liverworts (Azolla): stem reduced or wanting: leaves few, orbicular or oval (Salvinia); or numerous, minute and imbricated (Azolla) : sporangia and spores of two sorts as in Mar- silea, but borne on basal columns in the single cavity of the sporocarp; at first both sorts of sporangia are present but only one kind matures so that the sporo- carp becomes entirely "male" or entirely "female:" prothallium partly endosporous, only a portion of either the male or female prothallium emerging from the spore wall.

The family has 2 genera and about 15 species, of which 11 belong to Salvinia; generally distributed but principally tropical. Each genus is represented in the eastern United States by one native species. The family is related to the Marsileacese, but the habit, the structure of the sporocarps, and the separation of macrosporangia and microsporangia in different sporo- carps are distinctive.

The "roots" of Salvinia represent a modified leaf. Each leaf of Azolla is two-lobed, one lobe floating, the other submerged. A small cavity inclosed by the upper lobe is always inhabited by a nostoc-like alga, between which and the Azolla there is indication of a symbiotic relationship. Azolla possesses true roots.

The family is of almost no economic importance.

One species of Salvinia and two species of Azolla are occasionally grown in water-gardens.

CLASS II. EQUISETI1SLE Order 5. EQUISETALES

12. Eauisetaceae (from the genus Equisetum, meaning horse-bristle). HOKSE-TAIL FAMILY. Fig. 1. Plants of striking appearance, often with rhizomes and with a straight, aerial, striated axis bearing whorls of connate, scale-like leaves at the nodes: from the nodes also fre- quently arise slender branches of different structure which bear different but still scale-like leaves: the stem is hollow, and besides the central canal often contains numerous additional large canals imbedded in the outer tissue: spores of one kind (not microspores and macrospores) : sporangia 5-9, borne on the under surface of peltate, polygonal scales which form a terminal cone; dehiscence longitudinal; spores green, provided with several hygroscopic "elaters which aid in dissemination: prothallia green, unisexual, the female largest, branched.

A single genus and about 24 species are known, of which one section is tropical, the other of temperate distribution. Ten species are native in the eastern United States. The family is very distinct and shows no definite relationship to any existing plants. The habit, the undifferentiated spores, the peltate sporo- phylls, and the dioecious emergent prothallia are dis-

tinctive. The arrangement of the canals and also of the stomates along the stem are important in the distinction of species.

The stems of E. hiemale, rich in silica, were formerly much used for scouring and for polishing woods, and are still used to some extent. E. arvense and E. sylvati- cum have been used for polishing tin vessels, hence the name "tinweed." Several species have been used in medicine, as diuretics. E. giganleum is employed as an astringent. E. arvense and E. palustre are bad weeds in parts of Europe.

Several species have been advertised by American dealers in native plants.

CLASS III. LYCOPODIN^E Order 6. LYCOPODIALES

13. Lycopodiacese (from the genus Lycopodium, wolf- foot, from a fancied resemblance). CuiB-Moss FAMILY. Fig. 1. Branched plants of moderate size, stems often erect when short, usually prostrate, pendent, or creep- ing: leaves very numerous, small, subulate or oblong, moss-like, often imbricated; rarely the leaves all basal (Phylloglossum) : sporophylls either similar to the leaves, or much modified and forming terminal "cones:" sporangia and spores of one sort (not macrospores and microspores), the former reniform, borne at the base of a leaf on the upper side; dehiscence longitudinal: prothallia more or less cylindrical or amorphous, in some species green, in others colorless, saprophytic, sub- terranean or subcortical.

The club-moss family contains 2 genera and about 100 species, all but one of which belong to Lycopodium, distributed in all parts of the world except the very dry regions. The majority of the epiphytic species are tropical, but several terrestrial species extend to the arctic circle. Twelve of the species are native in the eastern United States. The family is not closely related to any other. The habit, the undifferentiated spores, and the prothallium are distinctive.

The branching of Lycopodium is of two types, the dichotomous, and the monopodial (a central axis from which lateral branches arise). On these types sub- genera are based.

The spores of Lycopodium (principally of L. clava- tum), which are produced in great quantities, are used by apothecaries for coating pills, and by metal-workers. These spores are highly inflammable and were formerly used in theaters to produce flashlights. L. Selago is emetic, drastic, verinifugal, and emmenagogue. L. myrsinitis and L. calharticum are purgative. Several other species have been used locally for various com- plaints. The creeping stems of L. clavalum and L. complanatum are often used for Christmas and church decorations.

Several species of Lycopodium (Club-moss, Ground Pine, Creeping Pine) are gathered or protected in America for decorative purposes or for the spores.

Order 7. SELAGINELLALES

14. Selaginellaceae (from the genus Selaginella, diminutive of Selago, ancient name of Lycopodium). SELAGINELLA FAMILY. Fig 1. Moss-like or lycopodium- like plants, often of moderate size, usually profusely and dichotomously branched, more rarely monopodial; creeping, pendent or erect, sometimes climbing and several meters long, or minute and 1-3 cm. long: leaves moss-like, very small, usually densely placed, often imbricated, often of two sizes (the branches therefore strongly dorsiventral) ; ligule present, borne at the base of the leaf on the upper side: roots borne on "rhizophores" which are probably modified branches: spores of two sorts (microspores and macrospores) in separate sporangia, borne in the leaf axils: sporophylls frequently modified, forming a cone or spike: prothallia

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

11

endosporous, the sport: wall of the raacrospores soon rupturing and exposing the archegonia.

The one genus, Selaginella, and about 500 species are widely distributed, but mostly tropical. The majority prefer damp forests, but some (e.g., S. rapes- tris) are xerophytic. Three species are native in the eastern United States. The family is related to the Lycopodiaceie superficially, but not in the spores and in the prothallia, which are more closely allied to another family, the Isoetaceae. The habit, the foliar ligule, the undifferentiated spores, and the endosporous prothallia are distinctive.

The spores of Solaginella have been used in the same manner as those of Lycopodium, but are less easily obtainable. S. concinna and S. obtusa have been used for diarrhea and dysentery. Several Mexican species are used locally for medicine. S. convoluta is employed in the East Indies as an aphrodisiac. The rosette-like S. lepidophylla of Mexico is the best-known "resur- rection plant." When dry, it rolls into a ball and becomes brown; when the air is humid, the branches spread out and the green upper surfaces are exposed.

Many species of Selaginella are in choice American collections, but very few are commonly in the trade. They are mostly grown for greenhouse and for table decoration under the name of "lycopodium."

SPERMATOPHYTA or SIPHONOGAMIA (PHANEROGAM IA)

SUB-DIVISION I. GYMNOSPERM& Order 8. CYCADALES

15. Cycadaceae (from the genus Cycas, the Greek name of a certain palm). CYCAS FAMILY. Fig. 4. More or less woody plants, with thick, unbranched, columnar or tuberous stem: leaves alternate, pinnate: stamens and carpels borne in cones or in temporarily terminal clusters: scales of the staminate cone bearing very many scattered anthers on the under side: the carpels open, not forming a closed ovary, either leaf-like pin- natifid and bearing marginal ovules, or peltate with 2 or more suspended ovules; the latter very large, often 1 inch long, orthotropous, with 1 integument, becoming drupe-like.

Cycadacese has 9 genera and about 85 species, dis- tributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Zamia is the largest genus, with 30 species. The family stands isolated among the gymnosperms. The palm-like habit, pinnate leaves, very numerous scattered stamens, and, in Cycas, the leaf-like carpel, are distinctive. Differences more important to the morphologist are to be found in the embryology, especially in the fertiliza- tion by motile sperm-cells. The leaves are circinate when unfolding, like those of a fern. The Cycadacese represent an ancient family far more numerous in past geologic ages. Many fossil species are known.

Various species of Cycas in the Moluccas and Japan, especially C, revoluta, yield a sago in the pithy part of the stem which the natives bake into bread. The Hottentots eat the pith of Encephalartos, making from it "Kafir bread. The seeds of Cycas and Zamia are edible. The leaves of Cycas are used at funerals and church festivals as "palm branches."

Several genera are in cultivation in America for greenhouse use and outdoors in the South. These are Bowenia; Ceratozamia of Mexico; Cycas (Sago Palm) of the far East; Dioon of Mexico; Encephalartos of South Africa; Macrozamia of Australia; Stangeria of South Africa; Zamia (Coontie, Comptie) of tropical America.

Order 9. GINKGOALES

16. Ginkgoaceae (from the genus Ginkgo, the Japanese name). GINKOO FAMILY. Fig. 4. Much-branched tree

with deciduous leaves: secondary wood without true vessels; resin-tubes present: leaves alternate, fan-shaped like the pinnules of Adiantum; veins forking: anthers borne in pedicelled pairs on a slender axis, without bracts, the whole somewhat catkin-like: no true pistil- late cone; ovules borne in pairs at the summit of branched peduncles, each ovule surrounded at the base by a fleshy ring: fruit drupaceous. Fertilization is by means of motile sperms.

A single genus of one species occurs in China and Japan. Fossil species are known. The family is dis- tantly related to the Coniferae, but the peculiar foliage, as well as the absence of cone structure and the great reduction of sporophylls, is distinctive.

Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo, maidenhair tree, Kew tree), the only species, is grown as a park tree.

3c

4. CTCADACEJI: 1. Cycas, a, leaf; b, carpel with ovules; c, male scale with anthers. 2. Zamia, female cone. GINKOOACE^E: 3. Ginkgo, a, leaf; b, ovules; c, stamen.

Order 10. CONIFERALES

17. Taxacese (from the genus Taxus, the classical name, probably from the Greek meaning bow , for which the wood is used). YEW FAMILY. Fig. 5. Much-branched trees or shrubs, with resin-tubes in the bark and no true vessels in the secondary wood: leaves alternate, needle-like or scale-like, persistent: stamens borne on the protected portion of more or less apically thickened or peltate scales (sporophylls) forming a small cone: pistillate cones wanting; ovules borne singly or two together on a fleshy or rudimentary carpel (sporophyll), inverted or straight, the outer integument forming an arillus: fruit a dry seed surrounded by the fleshy often highly colored arillus; the receptacle also often enlarged and forming a fleshy part of the fruit.

Taxaceae has 8 genera and about 70 species widely distributed, of which 40 belong to the genus Podocarpus. The family is related to the Coniferse, but differs in the reduction of the pistillate cone to a single ovule, in the modification or suppression of the sporophyll, and in the aril or arillus. The closely related Ginkgoaceae has a different staminate inflorescence. Fertilization is by means of pollen-tubes.

The timber produced by the tropical eastern species of Podocarpus and of Dacrydium (heron pine and

12

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

damion pine) is highly valued. The yew wood is hard and susceptible of a high polish. It is used in cabinet work and for bows. The seed and shoots of yew are said to be poisonous, but the arillus is harmless.

In cultivation in America are a few genera for orna- mental purposes: Cephalotaxus, East Asia; Podocar- pus, Chile, Japan, Australia, grown in the South; Taxus (Yew), Europe, Asia, North America; Torreya (Cali- fornia Nutmeg), California to Florida.

18. Pinaceae (from the genus Pinus, the classical Latin name). PINE FAMILY. Fig. 5. Tree or shrub, with no true vessels in the secondary wood, but with resin- tubes: leaves linear, or needle-like, or scale-like, alternate or opposite, evergreen or deciduous: anthers and ovules both in true cones plainly subtended by scales (sporophylls) ; the staminate scales usually bearing 2-6, rarely more, anthers on the under side; the pistillate bearing 1-2, rarely many, ovules on the upper side, or peltate and ovule-bearing under the crown or at its base; ovules with 1 integument: fruit

5. TAXACE^B: 1. Taxus, a, male cone; b, fruit (seed and aril). PINACE.E: 2. Tsuga, female cone. 3. Picea, female cone-scale with ovules. 4. Pseudotsuga, female cone. 5. Chamsecyparis, female cone. 6. Sequoia, female cone. 7. Juniperus, a, female cones (berries); 6, cross-section berry. GNETACE.E: 8. Ephedra, a, female inflorescence; b, male inflorescence.

a dry woody cone with dry, often winged seeds between the scales; or berry-like through the union of the fleshy cone-scales.

Sub-family 1. Cupressineae. — Cone-scales opposite; ovules erect: leaves opposite or whorled.

Sub-family 2. Abietinese. — Cone-scales alternate; ovules inverted: leaves alternate.

There are 25 genera and about 240 species, widely distributed but most abundant in temperate regions. The largest genus is Pinus with 70 species. The family is related to the Taxaceae and Ginkgoacese, from which it differs in the presence of true staminate and pistillate cones. It also differs from the latter in the absence of motile sperm-cells.

The Pinacese, like other Gymnosperms, is an old group, more abundant in former geologic ages. Many fossil species are known. The Sequoias of California were formerly more abundant, extending to Greenland. The young plants of many Cupressineae possess foliage

quite different in appearance from the mature foliage, the leaves being longer and more spreading. These juvenile forms have been called Retinisporas, a name which has been applied also to all cultivated species of Chamaecyparis. Juniper "berries" are fleshy cones with peltate, fused scales. The leaves of Larix, Pseu- dolarix and Cedrus are deciduous. The branchlets and leaves are deciduous in Taxodium. The cone-scales of many Abietineae are double, an outer thinner 3- toothed scale, and a thick inner scale that bears the ovules (see Pseudotsuga).

Among the Pinaceao are some of our most valuable timber trees; e. g., cedar, arborvitse, spruce, fir, hem- lock and redwood. The resin from various pines when distilled yields spirits of turpentine and rosin; when dry-distilled, it yields tar. Venice turpentine is the resinous exudation of European larches: Canada balsam that of Abies balsamea. Dammar resin is from the Malayan Agathis Dammara. Kauri resin is the semi-fossilized resin of Agathis australis of Australia and New Zealand. Sandarac resin is from Callitris quadrivalvis of Northwest Africa. Amber is the fos- silized resin of prehistoric conifers around the Baltic. Oil of savin is from the leaves and twigs of Juniperus sabina, and oil of cedar from Thuya occidentalis. Juniper berries, from J. cotnmunis of Europe and America, are diuretic and also used for flavoring gin. Edible seeds are produced by Pinus Pinea (stone pine) of the Mediterranean, P. Cembra of Europe and Siberia, P. Parry/ma and P. edulis of the southwestern United States, Podocarpus neriifolia of the East Indies, Arau- caria braziliana of Brazil, and A. Bidwillii of Australia. Bread is made by the Laps and Eskimos from the inner bark of Pinus sylvestris and Abies alba; also from various Pinaceae by our northwestern Indians. Deodar (Cedrus Deodara) is sacred to the Hindoos. Cedrus Libani is the cedar of Lebanon. Pine bark was form- erly used for tanning.

Many genera are in cultivation in America. Among these are: Abies (Fir, Balsam); Araucaria (Norfolk Island Pine, Monkey Puzzle); Callitris (Cypress Pine); Cedrus (Cedar of Lebanon, Deodar); Chamsscyparis (White Cedar, Yellow Cedar, Hinoki Cypress, Sawara Cypress, Retinispora, Japanese Cedar); Cryptomeria; Capressus (Cypress, Monterey Cypress); Juniperus (Red Cedar, Juniper, Savin); Larix (Larch, Tamarack, Hackmatack); Libocedrus (Incense Cedar, White Ce- dar); Picea (Spruce); Pinus (Pine, Pinnon, Soledad); Pseudolarix (Golden Larch); Pseudotsuga (Douglas Spruce, Red Fir); Sciadopitys (Umbrella Pine); Se- quoia (Big Tree of California, Redwood); Taxodium (Bald Cypress, Deciduous Cypress) ; Thuya (Arborvi- tae, White Cedar) ; Thuyopsis; Tsuga (Hemlock Spruce).

Order 11. GNETALES

19. Gnetacese (from the genus Gnetum, derived from Gneman, said to be the old Malay name of the plant). GNETUM FAMILY. Fig. 5. Very peculiar semi-woody plants of diverse habit: leaves large and broad, or modi- fied, or reduced, or opposite, or whorled: no resin-tubes in the stem; secondary wood containing true vessels: true flowers present, with a 2-4-parted perianth, unisexual, rarely bisexual; stamens 2-8; pistillate perianth becoming juicy or wing-like in fruit and inclos- ing one naked orthotropous seed with 1 or 2 integu- ments.

The family consists of 3 genera and about 35-40 species, widely distributed. It is distinguished from the Coniferse by the presence of a perianth, the absence of resin-tubes, and the presence of vessels in the secondary wood. The endosperm development, also, approaches that of the Angiosperms. The fertilization is by means of pollen-tubes. The three genera are very distinct: Ephedra, of the tropics of both hemis- pheres, is much branched, with slender jointed striate

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

13

equisetum-like stems, leaves scale-like at the distant nodes; Gnetum of South America, except one species, is a group of vines or shrubs with large broad leaves like those of an Angiosperm; Welwitschia of South Africa is a desert plant wit ha thick subterranean stem bearing two ribbon-like leaves 6 feet long, lying flat on the ground, and with a terminal cluster of cone-like flower-spikes.

It is doubtful whether any of these are regularly in the American trade.

SUB-DIVISION II. ANGIOSPERM/E

CLASS I. MONOCOTYLEDONEjE

Order 12. PANDANALES

20. Typhaceae (from the genus Ty-pha, the old Greek name). CATTAIL FAMILY. Fig. 6. Perennial marsh herbs, with creeping rootstocks, and long-linear, erect, mostly basal leaves: flowers monoecious, naked, in a dense terminal spike, which is staminate above and pistillate below, each sex subtended by one bract-like spathe; perianth 0; stamens 2-5; filaments connate, bearing long, silky hairs; carpels 1; ovary 1-celled, raised on a stipe which also bears long, silky hairs; ovule 1, suspended; style slender: fruit a nutlet; seed albuminous.

A single genus and about 12 species occur in the tropical and temperate zones. Fossil species are known. The family is closely related to the Sparganiaceae, with which it was formerly united. These two families con- stitute a very distinct group of simple-flowered Mono- cotyledons. The habit, the flowers borne in spikes with- out perianth, the hairy pedicels, the absence of bracts, and the simple pistil, are together distinctive.

The starchy rootstooks are sometimes used for food. The leaves are woven into matting, and into chair- bottoms, and are used for calking barrels. The pollen has been used as a substitute for the spores of Lyco- poclium. The rootstock is used in East Asia for dysen- tery and urethritis, and the leaves in various localities for thatching cottages. A vain attempt has been made to utilize the silky hairs of the fruit for making velvet.

Two species of Typha (Cattail Flag, Reed Mace), both native, are in the American trade for water-gar- dens.

21. Pandanaceae (from the genus Pandanus, derived from a Malay name). SCREW-PINE FAMILY. Fig. 6. Shrubby or arborescent plants: stems simple or branched, with prop-roots: leaves spirally arranged, densely placed, sword-shaped, often canaliculate, clasp- ing, stiff; edges and midrib often spiny-serrate: flowers on simple or branched spadices, dioecious, naked; spathes caducous; stamens densely packed, separated or united in fascicles, scattered over the spadix, and not in definite flowers; pistillate spadix simple; ovaries numerous, coherent in bundles, or isolated, not in real flowers; stigma sessile; ovules solitary or several: fruit drupaceous, cohering in multiple fruits; seed albumi- nous.

There are 3 genera and about 350 species, natives of the tropics of the Old World. The family is unique. The floral structure, while much like that of Typha, suggests also the Palmacea?. As in Typha, actual flowers cannot here be distinguished.

The fleshy pericarps of some are eaten. The strong odor of the staminate flowers is either agreeable or dis- agreeable, depending on the species ; in the former case the flowers are used for perfumery. The leaves of Pan- danus utilis are made into bags for shipping coffee, and the plant is now cultivated for that purpose in the West Indies.

Ten to 15 species of Pandanus (Screw Pine, Cande- labrum Tree, Chandelier Tree) are in greenhouse cul- tivation in America.

Order 13. HELOBI.E

22. Naiadaceae (from the genus Naias, derived from the Greek, meaning a water nymph). POND WEED FAMILY. Fig. 6. Immersed aquatic herbs: leaves mostly cauline, opposite or alternate, the floating often differing from the submerged in shape and texture: flowers axillary or spicate, bisexual or unisexual; peri- anth of 4 herbaceous segments, or wanting; stamens 1-4, rarely more; carpels 1-9, mostly distinct, 1-celled, 1-ovuled: fruit a nutlet; endosperm none; embryo curved, rarely straight.

Naiadaceas has 10 genera and about 100 species widely distributed, but most abundant in temperate regions. The largest genus is Potamogeton with 50 species. The family is a very heterogeneous one which has been divided or united in many ways by different authors. As here treated it is distinguished by the aquatic habit, greenish, often reduced perianth, few stamens, and few, separate, 1 -seeded carpels. A spathe- like bract usually incloses the inflorescence.

The dried leaves of Zostera and Posidonia have been used since ancient times in Venice to pack glassware. They are now widely used for packing. Plants of Potamogeton and Zostera are employed as manure.

Several species of Potamogeton (Pondweed) and one of Zannichellia are possibly in the American trade, for water-gardens.

4b

4a.

6. TYPHACE.E: 1. Typha: a, inflorescence; 6, male flower; c, female flower. PANDANACE.S:: 2. Pandanus, a, portion male inflorescence; 6, female inflorescence, vertical section. NAIAD- ACE.E: 3. Naias; o, male flower; b, female flower. 4. Potamogeton; a, flower; 6, vertical section nutlet.

23. Aponogetonacese (from the genus Aponogelon, derivation obscure). APONOGETON FAMILY. Aquatic herbs with tuberous rhizomes, and basal, submerged or floating leaves"; blade linear to oval, palmately parallel- veined, with transverse veinlets; the general tissue between the veins often wanting, thus producing a remarkable openwork latticed effect: flowers spicate, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; perianth of several petal- oid parts; stamens usually 6, rarely more; carpels mostly 3, rarely 4-6, separate; ovules 2-6, mostly basal, anatroppus: fruit pouch-like; endosperm none.

The single genus, with its 15 species occurs in Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and Australia. The family is related to the Naiadacese, with -which it was formerly united, and from which it is distinguished by the petal- oid perianth, several ovules, and straight embryo.

The roots are sometimes eaten by natives.

Aponpgeton dislachyus (Cape pond weed, water haw- thorn) is cultivated in water-gardens.

24. Alismaceae (from the genus Alisma, the Greek name). WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY. Fig. 7. Herbace-

14

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

ous marsh plants with milky juice: leaves mostly basal, sheathing, with a scale in the axil; blade various, float- ing or erect, often sagittate, varying in size and width with the depth of the water, pahnately parallel-veined with cross veinlets: flowers bisexual or unisexual, reg- ular, hypogynous, in whorls of 3; sepals 3, more or less hyaline; petals 3, white and petaloid; stamens 6 to many, in several whorls; carpels very many, separate or rarely coherent, spirally arranged or in a whorl, 1-ovuled, rarely 2-5-ovuled: fruit dry, rarely dehiscent; seed basal, anatropous, exalbuminous; embryo curved.

The family has 10 genera and about 50 species, dis- tributed throughout the warmer and temperate zones. The family is related to the Butomacese and Junca- ginacese, which are all peculiar in having an axillary intravaginal scale. The whorled flowers, differentiated perianth, numerous carpels, and mostly solitary, basal, exalbuminous seeds are distinctive.

The acrid juice formerly led to the occasional use of these plants in medicine. The tubers and rhizomes of Sagittaria were eaten by the American Indians as wappato; and are cultivated in China. They are said to come into the Chinese market at San Francisco, pre- served in liquid.

Two genera are in cultivation for water-gardens: Alisma (Water Plantain), native; and Sagittaria (Arrowhead), some native.

25. Butomaceee (from the genus Butomus, signifying ox + to cut, in reference to the rough leaves). Fig. 7. Aquatic or marsh herbs: leaves basal, with an axial scale, sometimes with milky juice; blade linear or oval; veins pahnately parallel with cross veinlets, or nearly veinless: flowers solitary or umbelled, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; sepals 3, subherbaceous; petals 3, colored, imbricated; stamens 9 or more, whorled; carpels 6 or more, separate; ovules numerous, borne

7. AUBMACE^E: 1. Alisma, a, inflorescence; b, flower; c, floral diagram; d, fruit. 2. Sagittaria, a, fruit; 6, achene. BCTOMACE*: 3. Butomus, flower. HYDROCHA.RITACE.S:: 4. Etodea, female flower branch. 5. Vallisneria, a, habit and flower; 6, female flower.

between the margins and midrib of the carpel: fruit dry, dehiscent; seed anatropous, exalbuminous; embryo straight or curved.

The family contains 4 genera and about 5 species, natives of the temperate and tropical zones of the Old World, and the tropics of the New World. The family is related to the Alismaceae and Juncaginacese, from the former of which it differs principally in the numerous ovules and their peculiar position.

The roots and seeds of Butomus were once used as emollients. The baked roots of Butomus are eaten in North Asia.

Two genera are in cultivation for water-gardens: Butomus (Flowering Rush), and Limnocharis (Water Poppy).

26. Hydrocharitaceae (from the genus Hydrocharis, derived from the Greek meaning water and rejoice). FROG'S-BIT FAMILY. Fig. 7. Submerged aquatic herbs, rarely floating, the flowers usually at first inclosed by a 2-bracted spathe: leaves alternate or opposite, very diverse, cordate, linear or ribbon-like: flowers usually unisexual, regular, epigynous; perianth in 2 series, composed of 3 imbricated or valvate, calicoid parts, and 3 convolute petaloid parts, rarely of only 3 divisions; stamens in 1 to several series of 3, some often stami- nodia; carpels 2-15; ovary inferior, 1-celled with parie- tal placenta;, or imperfectly several-celled; stigmas 3- 6: fruit not regularly dehiscent, submerged, some- what fleshy; seeds many, exalbuminous.

There are 14 genera and about 40 species widely distributed. The family is related to the Alismacez and Naiadacesc. The differentiation into calyx and corolla, the usually numerous stamens, the inferior, 1-celled ovary with parietal placenta;, and the exalbumi- nous seeds are together characteristic. The plants of this family are very diverse in appearance and often striking. Fossil species are known. The pollination of Vallisneria is very remarkable. (See Kerner and Oliver, "Natural History of Plants").

Elodea canadensis, introduced into Europe from America, has there become so abundant as to impede navigation. The plants of Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, and Elodea are used as fodder and as manure in Europe. The starchy rootstocks of Ottelia and Boottia are eaten in India as pot-herbs; also the tubers and fruits of Enalus. The fibers from the leaves of Enalus are used in India. Vallisneria alternifolia is employed in India in the preparation of sugar.

Five genera are in cultivation in America, mostly for aquaria: Elodea(Waterweed, Ditch-Moss,Water Thyme, Water Pest) ; Hydrocharis (Frog's-Bit) ; Limnobium (American Frog's-Bit) ; Stratiotes (Water Soldier, Water Aloe); Vallisneria (Eel-Grass, Tape-Grass).

Order 14. GLUMIFLOILE

27. Gramineae (from the Latin signifying grass). GRASS FAMILY. Fig. 8. Herbs, or sometimes almost tree-like: stems hollow or solid : leaves usually linear, in 2 ranks; composed of a sheath which is usually open down the front, a sessile blade, and a ligule at the juncture of blade and sheath: flowers bisexual or uni- sexual, naked, or with the perianth reduced to 1-3 tiny scales, borne in specialized spikelets composed of 3 01 more 2-ranked scales, the first 2 empty (called empty glumes), the others termed flowering glumes or lem- mas, and 1 scale on each secondary flower-bearing axis, called a palet or palea; stamens 2-3, exserted for wind-pollination; carpel 1; ovary 1, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; stigmas feathery, usually 2: fruit a caryopsis; seed with endosperm, and embryo with an absorbing organ.

Gramineae is a family of 300-400 genera and per- haps 5,000 species distributed all over the earth. The largest genera are Panicum with 300-400 species, Pas- palum with 160 species, and Poa with 100 species. The Gramine» and Cyperacete form a very distinct group. The usually hollow stem, the open sheaths, the ligule, the 2-ranked leaves, and the peculiar spikelet-structure are the best characters to separate Graminea1 from Cy- peracese. The Indian corn is one of the most modified of grasses. It is monoecious. The staminate spikelets are ar- ranged on finger-like branches of the tassel at the sum- mit of the plant; the pistillate spikelets are borne on the cob, which is supposed to be composed of similar finger- like portions grown together. Each spikelet is 2-flowered, but only 1 flower bears an ovary. The kernel is this ovary, and the chaff on the cob represent the glumes and palets. The grasses are divided into 13 tribes.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

15

The grasses are among the most useful of plants. The following, among others, are, or have been, used as medicine: Rhizome of Agropyron repens (quick- or quack-grass) is emollient, and aperient (several other grasses have the same properties) . Root of Arundo Donax (reed) is diuretic and sudorific. Phragmiles communis was formerly considered depurative and anti-syphilitic. Calamagrostis was used by the French peasants as a diuretic. Perotis latifolia is used in India for the same purpose, as are also the seeds of Coix Lacryma-Jobi in China. The roots of Manisuris granularis are used in India for intestinal troubles. The aromatic, fragrant roots of various Andropogons (or Cymbopogons) are used for medicine and for perfume in India and else- where, e. g., A. Nardus (false spikenard, citronella), A. citratus (lemon-grass). A. lanier and A. Schoenanthus (sweet rush, ginger-grass, geranium-grass) are used in Africa and Arabia as a stimulant, antispasmodic and diaphoretic, and for perfume.

The following are used for food: Seeds of wheat, barley, rye, oats, rice, Indian corn and millet; also seeds of Andropogon arundinaceus vxr.vulgare (sorghum), and var. Durra (durra). Pennisetum americanum (pearl millet) is an important food of the negro races, and Poa abyssinica and Eleusine are important in East Africa. Sugar is obtained from the stems of several species, most important of which are Saccharum officinarum (sugar-cane), and Andropogon arundinaceus var. sac- charalus or A. Sorghum (sugar sorghum).

Many grasses are used as fodder for cattle, as, for instance, our pasture and hay grasses: Poa pratensis (June grass, Kentucky blue grass), Phleum pratense (timothy), Festuca ovina, etc. (fescue), Agroslis alba (red-top), Dactylis glomerata (orchard-grass), Cynodon Dactylon (Bermuda-grass). Some grasses are poisonous to stock, e.g., Lolium temulentum (darnel), and the Peruvian Festuca quadridentata.

Straw from cereals is used for matting, upholstery, bedding, hats and for making paper.

The bamboos yield very important building material in the East. Like the palms, the bamboos are used for almost every conceivable purpose, and are among the most useful of plants.

Several grasses, ether than those above mentioned, contain a fragrant principle, e. g., roots of Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver or kus-kus of India) used to perfume rooms, and to keep insects out of clothing. Hierochloe odorata (vanilla- or holy-grass) is used in Europe in religious ceremonies, and by the American Indians for making baskets. Anlhoxanthum odoralum is the European sweet-grass, now introduced into America.

The most important ornamental species are Phalaris arundinacea, Slipa pennala, Cortaderia argentea, Lagurus ovalus, Hordeum jubatum. Miscanthus sinensis, Briza, Arundo, Phragmites, Erianthus, Pennisetum, Thysa- nolsena, and Bamboos.

In America 70-80 genera are cultivated, or are important as natural fodder plants or weeds. Among these are: Agropyron (Quack-Grass, Couch-G., Quick- G.); Agrostis (Bent-G., Red-Top, Cloud-G., Tickle-G., Fly-away-G.); Aira (Hair-G.); Andropogon (Silver- beard-G., Johnson-G., Lemon-G.); Anthoxanthum (Sweet Vernal-G.) ; Ammophila (Beach-G., Marram-G.) ; Arundinaria (Large Cane, Switch Cane, Scotch Cane) ; Arundo (Giant Reed); Avena (Oats); Bamboo; Briza (Quaking-G.); Bromus (Brome-G., Rescue-G.); Cala- magrostis (Reed Bent-G., Blue-joint-G., Pony-G.); Calamovilfa (Purple Bent-G.); Cenchrus (Sand-bur, Bur-G.); Chloris (Finger-G.) ; Cinna; Coix (Job's Tears, Tear-G., Corn Beads); Cortaderia (Pampas-G.); Cynp- dpn (Bermuda-G.); Cynosurus (Crested Dog's-tail, Silky-awned Dog's-tail); Dactylis (Cock's-foot, Or- chard-G.); Dactyloctenium (Crowfoot-G.) ; Desmazeria (Spike-G.); Deschampsia (Hair-G., Hassock-G.); Dig- itaria (Crab-G., Finger-G.); Distichlis (Salt-G., Marsh Spike-G.); Echinochloa (Barnyard-G.); Eleusine (Crab-

G., Yard-G., Dog's-tail, Wire-G., African Millet); Ely- mus (Lyme-G., Wild Rye, Terrel-G.); Eragrostis; Eri- anthus (WooUy Beard-G., Plume-G., VVool-G., Ra- venna-G.); Euchlaena (Teosinte); Festuca (Fescue-G.); Glyceria or Panicularia (Reed Meadow-G., Manna-G.); Cortaderia; Hierochloe (Vanil!a-G., Holy-G., Seneca-G., Sweet-scented-G.); Holcus (Meadow Soft-G.); Hordeum (Squirrel-tail-G., Wild Barley, Barley); Hystrix or

8. GRAMINE.E: 1. a, part of a grass panicle; b, apikelet. 2. Avena, a, portion of panicle; 6, spikelet ;e.ff., empty glume; fl.g., flowering glume or lemma; pal., palet or palea; c, ground-plan of spikelet. 3. Phleum, spikelet. 4. Phalaris, sheath and ligule.

Asprella (Bottle-G.) ; Lolium (Darnel, Rye-G.) ; Milium (Wild Millet-G.); Miscanthus (Eulalia, Himalaya Fairy-G.) ; Oplismenus; Oryza (Rice) ; Oryzopsis (Moun- tain Rice); Panicum (Panic-G., Old-Witch-G., Millet, Broom Corn Millet) ; Pennisetum (Pearl Millet) ; Pha- laris (Canary-G., Gardener's Garters) ; Phleum (Timothy- G., Herd's-G.); Phragmites (Common Reed); Phyllos- tachys (Bamboo, in part); Poa (Blue-G., Kentucky Blue-G., Meadow-G.) ; Saccharum (Sugar-cane) ; Secale (Rye) jSetaria (Millet, Hungarian-G., Foxtail-G., Pigeon- G.); Spartina (Cord-G.); Sphenopholis; Stenotaphrum (St. Augustine-G.); Stipa (Feathered-G., Esparto-G., Porcupine-G.) ; Tripsacum (Gama-G., Sesame-G.); Triticum (Wheat, Spelt).

28. Cyperaceae (from the genus Cypcrus, the ancient Greek name). SEDGE FAMILY. Fig. 9. Herbaceous plants with grass-like habit and solid stems: leaves alternate, in 3, rarely 2, vertical rows, linear; sheaths closed: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, hypogynous, borne in variously disposed spikelets, subtended and hidden by overlapping scales none of which are regu- larly empty as in the grasses; no true palets; perianth reduced to bristles, scales, or 0; stamens 2-3; carpels 2-3; ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled; style 1; stig- mas 2-3: fruit an achene; seeds basal, anatropous, albuminous.

There are 65 genera and about 3,000 species, inhabit- ing the whole earth. More than 500 species belong to the genus Carex, 400 to Cyperus, and 200 to Scirpus. They are abundant in swampy regions. The family is closely related to the Graminea1, from which it differs in the often 3-ranked leaves, solid stem, the absence of palets and of regular empty glumes, and the presence, in most cases, of a perianth and 3 carpels. Most divergent from the ordinary is Carex, the flowers of which are monoecious, and the pistillate, though naked, are inclosed in a flask-shaped structure called a peri-

16

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

gynium, which probably corresponds to the modified palet of the grass spikelet. The elongated perianth forms the wool of the wool-grass or cotton-grass. The scales of the spikelet are in 2 ranks in Cyperus and Dulichium; in many ranks in the other genera.

The Cyperacese are of far less economic importance than the Graminese. The rhizomes of several species of Carex were formerly used as a remedy in syphilis. Scirpus lacustris is astringent and diuretic, but other

9. _CYPERACEJE; 1. Scirpua, a, portion of inflorescence; 6, flower. 2. Eriophorum, spikelet. 3. Carex; a, inflorescence; bt vertical section perigynium. PALMACE^E: 4. Chamserops, a, spathe and spadix; 6, floral diagram. CYCLANTHACE.E: 5. Cyclanthus, inflo- rescence. 6. Carludovica, inflorescence.

species also possess this property. The foliage of Eriophorum has been used for dysentery. The spongy pith of the Eriophorum stem was used by German peasants for tapeworm. The tubers of Cyperus escu- lentus, now a weed in all countries, were cultivated by the Egyptians for food. The leaves of many species of Cyperaceae have been woven into mats, chair- bottoms, and the like. The Egyptians made parchment from the pith of Cyperus Papyrus. The rhizomes of Eleocharis tuberosa are used in the manufacture of starch, in China and India. Cyperus scariosus and C. pertenuis, of India, are fragrant and used in making perfumery. Some carices are used in making rugs.

Several genera are in cultivation in America, mostly for water-gardens, table decorations, and the con- servatory: Carex (Sedge); Cyperus (Umbrella Palm, Egyptian Paper Plant, Egyptian Papyrus, Chufa); Duhchium; Eleocharis; Eriophorum (Cotton-Grass, Wool-Grass); Mapania; Scirpus (Bulrush Sedge).

Order 15. PBINCIPES

29. Palmaceae (from the Latin name palma). PALM FAMILY. Fig. 9. Woody plants of various habit, low, or arborescent, or climbing, usually unbranched, sometimes spinescent : leaves forming a crown at summit of stem except in Calamus, alternate, coriaceous, pal- mately or pinnately veined, entire or pinnatifid or palmatifid, often very large: inflorescence a simple or

much-branched spadix, with or without a subtending spathe, the latter often woody; flowers unisexual, rarely bisexual, often sunk in the spadix; perianth of 6 parts in 2 series, greenish, often woody, valvate in the staminate, imbricated or convolute in the pistillate flower; stamens 6, rarely 3 or many, on or around a disk, separate or united; carpels 3, rarely fewer, sepa- rate or forming a 1-3-celled ovary; each cell 1-ovuled, but all except one seed in the ovary may abort; stigmas usually 3: fruit a berry or drupe; pericarp fleshy or fibrous; seeds albuminous.

Palmaceae has 128 genera and about 1,000 species of tropical distribution; 10-15 species are found in the southern United States. The largest genera are Calamus with about 200 species, Bactris with 90 species and Chamaedorea with 60 species. The family is very distinct, having no close relatives, but it evi- dently belongs to the spathe- and spadix-bearing group. The habit, coriaceous plicate leaves which are entire in the bud, the woody flowers and inflorescence, the 3 sepals and 3 petals, the usually 6 stamens, and the 3 carpels, each with 1 seed, are together distinctive.

Palm leaves are always entire in the bud, and if later pinnatifid or palmatifid, become so on unfolding. In this respect the palms are unique. The leaves are plicate in the bud, and, on opening, the plates of the fan expand and either remain united or, more frequently, split down along the folds. In the pinnate species the rachis between the folds elongates so that the divisions are separated, and the well-known palm leaf is produced. The splitting may be at the top of the fold, or at the bottom, depending on the genus, and is an important characteristic in classification. Some of the largest seeds in the plant kindgom belong to the Palmaceae, as, for example, the coconut. This fruit is produced from an originally 3-celled ovary, 2 cells of which abort.

Next to the grasses, the palms are the most generally useful of all plants. It is said that probably there is not a species but that is useful in some way. Many yield textile fibers. The wood is used to build houses and the leaves to thatch the roofs. The leaves are also made into mats, baskets, hats, and the like. The fibrous bud-sheaths are used as hats, or for fiber. Some species contain starch or sugar in the trunk. The fruits of many contain sugar, protein, starch, or oil. Compara- tively few are medicinal. "The palm is called King of Plants and is said to supply all the wants of an inhabi- tant of the tropical zone. It yields sugar, milk, solid cream, wine, vinegar, oil, cordage, cloth, cups, wood for building, thatch and other products." Coconuts, the fruit of Cocos nucifera, form one of the most im- portant foods of the tropics. The date fruit (Phoenix dactylifera of the Sahara) is also important. Metroxylon Rumphii, and other species, yield sago. A fermented liquor known as palm wine, laymi or arrack, is made from the juice of Arenga saccharifera, Borassus flabelli- formis, Metroxylon Rumphii, Mauritia vinifera, and others. The central bud of the cabbage palm and others is used for food. Most palm oil is from the fruit of Elans gidneensis of West Africa, which is now culti- vated in America. It is used like olive oil , or in the North for making soap. Vegetable wax is obtained from the leaves and stems of Ceroxylon andicolum of Peru, also from Copernicia cerifera (carnauba wax). The famous 'giant double coconut is from Lodoicea sechellarum of the Seychelle Islands. The fruit of Areca Catechu of the East Indies and India yields an astringent juice which, mixed with the leaves of the betel pepper and lime, is chewed by the inhabitants of tropical Asia. Coconut fiber is important for making ship cables. The very slender stems of Calamus, often 300 feet or even 500 feet long (it is reported 1,200 or 1,800 feet, but not verified) and scarcely larger than a pipe-stem or a finger, are called rattan, and used for furniture. Much of the dragon's blood of the druggists

A SYNOPSIS -OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

17

is the red juice of the fruit of Calamus Draco. Palm- leaf fans are made from the palmately veined leaves of several species. The saw palmetto (Sabal serrulata) of the southern states is medicinal. The seeds of Phy- telephas macrocarpa have a very hard endosperm known as vegetable ivory, used for carving as a sub- stitute for ivory.

Probably 100 genera are in the trade. Except in the tropics, they are almost entirely ornamental greenhouse plants. Among these are: Areca (Betel Nut); Attalea; Bactris; Calamus; Caryota (Fish-tail Palm, Wine Palm, Toddy Palm) ; Ceroxylon (Wax Palm) ; Chamse- dorea; Cocos (Coco Palm, Coconut, Pindo Tree); Corypha (Talipot Palm); Dsemonorops ; Eloeis (Oil Palm); Erythea (Blue Palm); Geonoma; Hedyscepe (Umbrella Palm); Howea (Flat Palm, Thatch Leaf Palm, Curly Palm); Livistona; Oreodoxa (Royal Palm, Cabbage Palm); Phoenix (Date Palm); Phytelephas (Ivory Palm) ; Rhapis; Rhapidophyllum (Blue Pal- metto, Needle Palmetto); Sabal (Dwarf Palmetto, Blue Palm, Cabbage Palmetto); Seremea (Saw Pal- metto); Thrinax; Trachycarpus (Fortune's Palm); Washingtonia or Pritchardia (Weeping Palm).

Order 16. SYNANTILE

30. Cyclanthaceae (from the generic name Cyclan- thus, which has reference to the spiral arrangement of the flowers). CYCLANTHDS FAMILY. Fig. 9. Stemless or caulescent, palm-like, somewhat woody plants, often climbing: leaves alternate, coriaceous, cleft or parted: flowers in a dense terminal unbranched spike (spadix), with several bract-like spathes beneath; staminate flow- ers grouped in 4 bundles accompanying the pistillate, or both in conspicuous alternating spirals; staminate perianth reduced and fimbriate, or 0; stamens 6 to many, borne in groups; perianth of the pistillate flower 0, or of 4 fleshy parts accompanied by 4 long, twisted, exerted staminodia; carpels 4, united below, sunken in the spadix; ovary 1 -celled, many-pvuled, with parietal placenta: fruit multiple, a berry-like spike. The tissue of the spadix splits into valves, coiling up from the base to apex and thus inclosing the fruitlets which deli- quesce.

This family has 5 genera and about 50 species, of which 35 belong to Carludovica. They are confined to the tropics of America, and stand intermediate between the Palmaceoe and Aracea?. The family is distinguished by the combination of palm-like foliage, numerous ovules, thick spadix, and closely associated staminate and pistillate flowers.

The flowers of Cyclanthus biparlitus of Brazil are vanilla-scented, cultivated, and cooked with meat as an aphrodisiac. The leaves of Carludovica palmata furnish the material for the panama hats.

Several species of Carludovica are in the American trade as greenhouse plants.

Order 17. SPATHIFLOR<E

31. Aracese (from the genus Arum, the ancient name of these plants). ARUM FAMILY. Fig. 10. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, of the most diverse habit and appearance, often climbing, or epiphytic with aerial roots, rarely floating, usually subfleshy; juice sometimes milky: leaves ensi- form or broad, parallel- or netted- veined, entire or variously cut: flowers bisexual or unisexual, rarely reduced to a single stamen and carpel, regular, hypogy- nous or epigynous, disposed on an unbranched fleshy axis (spadix), which is usually subtended by a special bract (spathe); perianth 0, or of 4-8 parts; stamens 1 to many; carpels 1 to several; ovary superior or in- ferior, 1 to several-celled, 1 to many-ovuled; style and stigmas various: fruit a berry; seeds albuminous, outer integument fleshy.

Araceae has over 100 genera and about 900 species, widely distributed, but most abundant in the tropics,

especially as epiphytes in the deep, damp forests. The majority in the temperate regions are swamp-plants. The largest genera are Philodendron with 100 species, and Arisaema with 50 species. The family stands as the type of the spathe-bearing plants. Its close relatives are the Lemnacese, Palmaceae, and Cyclanthacea;, from which it is distinguished more by general habit and texture than by structural details.

The pollination of the Aracese is often complicated and remarkable (see Kerner and Oliver). The transfer of the pollen is mostly accomplished by flies, which are frequently attracted by lurid color and carrion scent. The leaves of Monstera are remarkable for their peculiar perforations, while the massive petioles of other Araceae are sometimes mottled like snakeskin Pistia is a much-reduced floating aquatic, transitional to the Lemnaeese. The aerial roots of the epiphytic species are frequently covered with a special water- absorbing tissue. The unfolding spathes of the Aracese are noted for the heat evolved. The tissues are usually very mucilaginous and filled with needle-like crystals of calcium oxalate. These crystals are supposed to give the pungent flavor to Indian turnip simply by mechanically penetrating the tongue.

Many species have been used locally for medicine. Lagenandra. toricaria of Ceylon is extremely poisonous.

10. ARACE.E: 1. Ariaaema, spathe and spadix. 2. Arum spadix with male and female flowers. LEMNACE.E: 3. Lemna, a, whole plants; 6, male and female flowers, and spathe. BROMEUACE*: 4. Bromelia, flower. 5. Ananas, a, fruiting inflorescence; fr, floral diagram. COMMELINACE.E : 6. Commelina, flower. 7. Tradescantia, flower.

Dieffenbachia Seguine and Arissema triphyllum are violent irritants when chewed, causing the mouth to swell. Arum maculatum of Europe was used by the ancients as an excitant. The roots of Symplocarpus have been used for asthma and colds. The roots of Acarus Calamus (sweet flag) are aromatic and used for coughs, colds, and the like. The thick rootstocks and roots of many have been used for food, e. g., Oron- lium aquaiicum of North America, Colocasia antiquo- rum of India, Alocasia macrorhiza (taro) of the Pacific Islands, and Peltandra virginica of North America. The rhizomes of Arisxma maculatum and Calla palus-

18

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

tris, mixed with cereals, according to Linnaeus, serve for food among the Laps and Finns. Portland arrow- root is derived from Arums. The delicately flavored, juicy fruits of Monstera deliciosa are eaten in Mexico. The shoots of Xanthosoma sagiUifolium, called caraibe cabbage, are eaten as a vegetable in the Antilles. The aerial roots of aroids are used to tie bundles of sarsa- parilla sent to Europe and America.

Because of their odd habit and strange appearance, as well as, in some cases, for real beauty, many Araceae are in cultivation, mostly as conservatory plants. Many genera are in the American trade. Among these are: Acorus (Sweet Flag); Alocasia; Amorphophallus (Devil's Tongue, Snake Palm, Stanley's Wash;Tub); Anthurium; Arisama (Indian Turnip, Jack-in-the- Pulpit, Dragon Root, Fringed Calla); Arum (Black C;il!a. Solomon's Lily, Lord and Ladies, Cuckoo Pint, Wake-Robin of England); Biarum; Caladium; Calla; Colocasia; Dieffenbachia; Helicodiceros (Hairy Arum) ; Monstera (Ceriman, Shingle Plant); Nephthytis; Oron- tiuiu (Golden Club); Peltandra (Water Arum); Pistia (Water Lettuce, Tropical Duckweed); Pothos; Sauro- matum; Schizmatoglottis; Spathiphyllum; Symplocar- pus, or Spathyema (Skunk Cabbage); Xanthosma (Malanga); Zantedeschia, or Richardia (Calla Lily, Lily-of-the-Nile).

32. Lemnaceae (from the genus Lemna, an old Greek name of uncertain origin). DUCKWEED FAMILY. Fig. 10. Tiny aquatic plants floating or submerged, the plant body reduced to an oval or oblong, flat or globular thallus, which multiplies rapidly by marginal buds, and may or may not bear 1 or more roots qn the under side: flowers unisexual, naked, monoecious; the staminate consisting of 1 stamen; the pistillate of 1 flask-shaped, 1-celled pistil, with several ovules; the latter orthotropous or anatropous, the micropyle transformed into a cap: fruit a several-seeded utricle.

There are 3 genera and about 25 species, distributed over the whole earth, except the arctics. The family is related to the Aracea;, from which it is supposed to have degenerated. The flowers, which rarely occur, are borne in minute pits in the edge or upper surface of the thallus, either 1 staminate and 1 pistillate, or 2 staminate and 1 pistillate together; in some genera provided with a spathe corresponding to the spathe in the Araceae. The roots, when present, are balancing organs to resist the upsetting of the plant by the waves. Wolffia is the tiniest flowering plant, the whole plant sometimes in size only half the diameter of a pinhead.

By the very rapid vegetative multiplication of some species, ponds are often completely covered with a green coating, and these plants may then become of economic importance.

Lemna and Spirodela are often grown in aquaria.

Order 18. FARINOSE

33. Bromeliaceas (from the genus Bromelia, in honor of Olaus Bromel, a Swedish botanist). PINEAPPLE FAMILY. Fig. 10. Herbs or subshrubs, mostly epiphytic: leaves usually basal, alternate, linear, trough-like, sheathing at the base, mostly stiff and spiny-serrate, usually covered in part or all over with peltate scale-like hairs or glands: flowers in spikes, racemes, panicles or heads, often in the axils of imbricated, highly colored, bracts, usually bisexual, regular, epigynous or hypogy- nous; perianth of 6 parts, definitely differentiated into calyx and corolla; partsfreeor united; stamens 6, often borne on the perianth; anthers introse; ovary inferior or superior, 3-celled; ovules many; style 1; stigmas 3: fruit a berry or capsule, more or less surrounded by the persistent perianth; seeds albuminous.

The family has 40 genera and about 900 species, almost exclusively of tropical and subtropical Amer- ica. Tillandsia usneoides reaches Florida and Texas.

Tillandsia is the largest genus with 120 species. The family is closely related to the Liliaceae and Amaryl- lidacea;. The peculiar stiff leaves, the conspicuous bracts, the herbaceous calyx, the mealy endosperm, and, in general, the epiphytic habit, are distinc- tive. There are few families more easily recognized than this.

The most important economic species is the pine- apple (Ananas sativus), the fruit of which is an impor- tant article of commerce. Its unripe juice is used as a vermifuge and diuretic. Florida or Spanish moss (Tillandsia itsneoides) is used in the preparation of a stiptic ointment. It is also used to stuff mattresses, under the name of vegetable hair. Billbergia linctoria is the source of a dye. The leaves of pineapple yield a beautiful fiber. Bromelia Pinguin is a vermifuge em- ployed in the West Indies.

There are several genera grown in America, all for ornamental purposes except the pineapple. Among these are: jEchmea; Ananas (Pineapple) ; Billbergia; Bromelia (Pinguin of Jamacia, Wild Pine) ; Cryptanthus; Dyckia; Guzmannia; Nidularium; Pitcairnia; Tillandsia (Span- ish Moss, Florida Moss, Long Moss) ; Vriesia.

34. Commelinaceae (from the genus Commelina dedi- cated to J. and G. Commelin, Dutch botanists of the early 18th century). SPIDEBWOBT FAMILY. Fig. 10. Herbs with knotty stems, and somewhat sheathing, alternate, flat or channeled, cauline leaves : flowers usually bisexual, almost or quite regular, hypogynous; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, differentiated into a green calyx and colored corolla; the petals separate or united into a tube, mostly quickly disappearing, and dissolving into a viscid liquid; stamens 6, or reduced to 3, with or without staminodia; some anthers often sterile and altered; the filaments usually provided with characteristic long hairs; ovary superior, 2— 3-celled, few-seeded; style 1; stigma usually captitate: fruit a capsule.

Twenty-five genera and about 300 species occur, widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. Eleven species reach the northeastern United States. The largest genus is Commelina, with 88 species. The family is not closely related to any other. The general habit, the complete differentiation of the perianth into calyx and corolla, the slight irregularity of the flower, the peculiar stamen-hairs, and the transformed anthers, are together distinctive. The peculiar deliquescent character of the petals in many genera is of interest.

The rhizomes of several species of Commelina con- tain starch, besides the mucilage, and arc eaten. The rhizome of C. Rumphii is an emmenagogue. The tubers of Aneilema medicum are used in China for coughs and lung diseases. A decoction of Cyanotis axillaris is used by the Indians for dropsy. The family is most important from the point of view of orna- mental use.

Several genera are grown in America, all for ornament. Among these are: Aneilema; Cochliostema; Commelina (Day Flower); Dichorisandra; Tradescantia (Spider- wort, Wandering Jew); Zebrina (Wandering Jew).

35. Pontederiaceae (from the genus Pontederia, named in honor of Pontedcra, professor at Padua in the 18th century). PICKEREL- WEED FAMILY. Fig. 11. Upright or floating, fleshy, water- or swamp-p lants: leaves alternate; petioles sheathing; blade cordate, oval, or orbicular, or reduced to the linear flattened petiole: flowers not bracted, bisexual, irregular, hypogy- nous; perianth of 6 similar parts, in 2 whorls, more or less connate, persistent; stamens 3 or 6, rarely 1, inser- ted unequally on the perianth-tube; anthers introse: ovary superior, 3-celled and ovules many, or 1-celled and 1-seeded; style 1; stigmas 3: fruit a capsule, or an achene enveloped by the fleshy persistent base of the perianth; embryo as long as the endosperm.

The family contains 6 genera and about 20 species, of which 9 belong to the genus Heteranthera, and about 5 to Eichhornia. They are distributed in the swamps of

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT SYSTEM

19

the wanner parts of the earth, except Europe. Tin; family is most closely related to the Liliaceje, from which it differs in the irregular flowers, in the sympodial method of growth, in anatomical characters, and principally in the abundant mealy endosperm.

A ( lecoction of the root of Monochoria wgittftlis of the Far East is used for liver and stomach complaints; the root is chewed for toothache; pulverized and mixed with sugar it is used for asthma; the leaves bruised and mixed with milk are used for cholera; and the siioots are edible. Eichhornia crassipes is a floating fleshy plant with beautiful flowers. It has become so abundant in Florida as to interfere seriously with steam- boat navigation in the rivers. The large violet flowers of both Eichhornia and Pontederia are valued in cultivation for water-gardens.

Two genera are frequent in cultivation: Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth), from South America; and Ponte- deria (Pickerel-weed), native.

Order 19. LILIFLOR/E

36. Juncacese (from the genus Juncus, classical name, derived Irom jungrre, to join). RUSH FAMILY. Fig. 11. Rush-like or mas-like herbs or shrubs: flowers numer- ous, very small, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; perianth of 6 similar, separate parts, greenish or brownish, chaffy; stamens 3 or 6 in 2 whorls; carpels 3; ovary 1-

11. PONTEDERIACE.E: 1. Pontederia, floral diagram. JCNCA- CE.B: 2. Luzula, flower. 3. Juncus, a, flower; 6, floral diagram. LIUACE.E: 4. Dracaena, flower. 5. Fritillaria, floral diagram. AMARYI.IJDACE.E: 6. Leucoium; a, flower; fr, floral diagram. 7. Narcissus, flower.

or 3-celled; ovules 3 to many; stigmas 3: fruit a cap- sule; seeds mostly very small, albuminous, anatropous.

Juncacese has 7 genera and about 175 species, of which 160 belong to the genus Juncus, widely distrib- uted in temperate and cold regions, both north and south, but rare in the tropics. The family is closely related to the Liliaceos, from which it differs only in the rush- or grass-like habit and scarious perianth. Fossil species are known. The leaves are sheathing and the blades arc either flat, or tubular and nodulose. Distichia of the Andes is densely heath-like or moss- like.

The stems and leaves of many species are used for binding, or for weaving into mats. Light hats are made from the pith of certain species in India and China. The pith is also used for candlewicks.

In cultivation in America are 2 genera for water- gardens: Juncus; Prionium, woody. Xanthorrhcea is transferred to the Liliacea;.

37. Liliaceae (from the genus Lilium, classical Latin

name). LILY FAMILY. Fig. 11. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, usually with rootstocks or bulbs, sometimes climbing: leaves alternate, rarely with petiole and blade: flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual, regular, hypogynous, rarely epigynpus, not subtended by spathes; perianth petaloid, of 6 similar parts, in 2 series, the parts separate or connate, rarely differentiated into a green calyx and colored corolla; stamens 6, rarely fewer, hypogynous, or borne upon the perianth; carpels 3, rarely more or fewer, united, rarely free; ovary usually 3-celled; ovules 1 to many in each cell; styles and stigmas 1-3: fruit a capsule or berry.

There are about 200 genera and 2,000 species, distrib- uted in all parts of the world. The large genera are Smilax with 200 species, Allium with 250 species, Asparagus with 100 species. Aloe with 85 species and Seilla with 80 species. The Liliaceae, taken in the broader sense, as is done by Bentham & Hooker, and by Engler, is an easily recognized group except in unu- sual cases. The regular, 6-parted perianth, 6 stamens, and 3-celled superior ovary are distinctive. The family has been divided by Engler into 1 1 tribes. The Liliacca> furnishes a host of cultivated plants.

The following plants, among others, have been or are used in medicine: Amianthium muscxloxicum of North America as a narcotic and a fly poison; various species of Uvularia of North America as a gargle and for rattle- snake bites; the root of Polygonatum sp. in Europe as a vulnery, and the berries as an emetic and purgative; the berries of Smilacina racemosa of North America as a tonic; the root of Convallaria majalis of Europe as a purgative; the leaves of Streptopus amplexicaulis of North America as a gargle; the roots of Ruscus of Europe as a diuretic and emmenagogue; the roots of Smilax sp. of the tropics (the sarsaparillas of commerce) as a tonic and diuretic; the roots of Asparagus officinalis in Europe as an aperient, the berries as a diuretic and aphrodisiac, and the shoots as a sedative and cardiac; the roots of Cordyline of the southern tropics for dysentery; the flowers of C. deflexa as an emmenagogue; the resin from Xanthorhcea hastilis (Botany Bay gum, with a fragrance like benzoin) in Australia for throat troubles; the resin of X. australis (grass tree gum, earth shellac, or nut pitch) for various purposes; the tubers of Ophiopogon japonicus (serpent's beard) in China and Japan for abdominal troubles; the bulbs of Gagea of Europe as an emetic; the flowers of Hemero- callis of Europe as a cordial; the leaves of species of Aloes of the Old World as a tonic, purgative, and em- menagogue (A. Perryi is Socotrine aloes, A. vera is Barbadoes aloes, and A. spicata is Cape aloes); the bulb of Urginea marilima (squills) of the Mediterra- nean as a diuretic, expectorant, and emetic; Allium sp. as a vermifuge and carminative; the bulbs of Hya- cinthus, Muscari, and Ornithogalum of Europe as purgatives and diuretics; Ornithogalum altissimum of the Cape as a remedy for asthma and catarrh; Antheri- cum and Asphodelus as diuretics and emmenagogues ; Tulbaghia of the Cape as a vermifuge and for phthisis; the poisonous root of Veratrum album (white helle- bore) of Europe as a violent purge and emetic, and to exterminate vermin; V. nigrum (black h.) of Europe, and V. viride (green h.) of the United States, occasion- ally, for the same purpose; Schcenocaulon officinalis (cavadilla or sabadilla) of Mexico for vermin and as a vermifuge; the narcotic, poisonous root and seeds of Colchicum officinale of Europe as a cathartic, emetic, and sedative; and Helonias bulltila of North America as a vermifuge. The roots of Gloriosa, also, are poison- ous. Driica-tm Draco, the dragon tree of the Canaries and Teneriffe, famous for the extreme age and size of the trees, was superstitiously revered by the ancients. The red resinous astringent exudation of these plants was called dragon's blood.

The following have been used for food: Bulbs of Camassia esculenta, western United States; bulbs and

20

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

leaves of Allium sp. (onion, leek, eschalot or shallot, rochambole) ; shoots of Polygonatum, Europe, United States; shoots of Asparagus officinalis; roots of Cordy- line sp., in South Sea Islands, and there called ti. The seeds of Ruscus are a substitute for coffee.

A few have been used for other purposes: Roots of Yucca for soap; fibers of New Zealand flax (Phcmnium tenax) for fabrics; and the fragrant root of Dianella nemorosa for incense.

For ornament, great numbers of genera and species are in cultivation.

Very many genera are in cultivation, some common, for ornamental purposes unless otherwise stated . Among these are Agapanthus (African Lily, Lily-of-the-Nile) ; Aletris (Colic Root), native; Allium (Onion, Chives, Gives, Garlic, Leek, Shallot), ornament and food; Asphodeline (True Asphodel, King's Spear); Asphodelus (Branching Asphodel) ; Bessera (Mexican Coral Drops) ; Brevoortia (Floral Fire-Cracker) ; Brodisea; Calochortus (Star Tulip, Globe Flower, Mariposa Lily, Butterfly Tulip) ; Camassia (Camass) ; Chionodoxa (Glory-of-the- Snow); Chlorpgalum (Soap Plant, Amole); Clintonia, native; Colchicum (Meadow Saffron, Autumn Crocus); Cordyline (Dracaena); Dasylirion; Dracaena (Dragon Tree); Erythronium (Dog's-tooth Violet, Adder's Tongue); Eucomis (Royal Crown, Pineapple Flower); Fritillaria (Crown Imperial, Black Lily, Checkered Lily); Funkia (Day Lily, Plantain Lily); Galfconia (Giant Summer Hyacinth); Gasteria; Gloriosa (Climb- ing Lily); Haworthia; Helonias (Swamp Pink, Stud Pink); Hemerocallis (Yellow Day Lily, Lemon Lily); Hyacinthus (Hyacinth); Kniphofia (Red-hot-poker Plant, Torch Lily, Flame Flower); Lachenalia (Cape Cowslip) ; Lapageria (Chilean Bellflower) ; Leucocrinum (Sand Lily); LiUum (Lily, Easter Lily, Madonna Lily, Tiger Lily, Japan Lily, Turk's-cap Lily); Littonia (Climbing Lily); Maianthemum (False Lily-of-the- Valley, Two-leaved False Solomon's Seal), native; Medeola (Indian Cucumber Root), native; Melanthium (Bunch Flower); Milla (Mexican Star, Mexican Star of Bethlehem, Frost Flower, Floating Star); Muscari (Grape Hyacinth, Musk Hyacinth, Feathered Hya- cinth); Narthecium (Bog Asphodel) ; Nolina; Nothos- cordurn (Yellow False Garlic, Streaked-leaved Garlic) ; Oakesia (Wild Oats), -native; Ornithogalum (Star of Bethlehem); Paradisea (St. Bruno's Lily, St. Bernard's Lily); Paris (Herb Paris, Love Apple, True Love); Phormium (New Zealand Flax); Polygonatum (Solo- mon's Seal); Ruscus (Butcher's Broom); Sansevieria (Bow-string Hemp) ; Scilla (Squill, Wild Hyacinth, Blue- bell, Harebell, Spanish Jacinth, Sea Onion, Starry Hya- cinth, Cuban Lily, Hyacinth of Peru, Peruvian Jacinth) ; Semele (Climbing Butcher's Broom) ; Smilacina (False Solomon's Seal), native; Smilax; Streptopus (Twisted Stalk), native; Tricyrtis (Toad Lily); Trillium (Wake- Robin, Birthroot, Bethroot, White Wood Lily, Ground Lily), native; Triteleia (Spring Star-Flower) ; Tulipa (Tulip); Urginea (Sea Onion, Squills); Uvularia (Bell- wort, Wild Oats), native; Veratrum (False Hellebore, White Hellebore, Green Hellebore, Black Hellebore, Indian Poke); Xanthorrhoea (Grass Tree, Grass Gum, Black Boy); Xerophyllum (Turkey's Beard); Yucca (Spanish Bayonet, Adam's Needle, Bear Grass, Silk Grass); Zygadenus (Fly-poison).

38. Amaryllidaceae (from the genus Amaryllis named for a nymph celebrated by Virgil). AMARYLLIS FAMILY. Fig. 11. Caulescent or acaulescent herbs, bul- bous- or fibrous-rooted: leaves alternate, elongated, entire: flowers bisexual, regular or irregular, epigynous, usually borne singly or in clusters from a spathe-like bract; perianth of 6 similar parts in 2 series, usually connate below into a tube and sometimes with a tubular or cup-shaped crown in the throat; stamens 6, some occasionally staminodial ; anthers introrse ; ovary inferior, 3-celled; ovules numerous, anatropous; style 1; stigmas 1-3: fruit a capsule, rarely a berry; seeds albuminous.

There are 71 genera and about 800 species, widely distributed but most abundant in the steppe regions of the tropics and subtropics. Five species are found in the northeastern United States. The largest genera are Crinum with 60 species, and Hypoxis, and Hip- peastrum with 50 species each. The family is most closely related to the Liliaceze; less closely to the Iridacese. The 6-parted perianth, 6 stamens with introrse anthers, and inferior 3-celled ovary, are together distinctive.

The bulbs or rootstocks of some species have been used in medicine. Those of Narcissus Pgeudo-Narcistvi and Leucoium vernum are vigorous emetics. Those of Crinum zeylanicum of the Moluccas, Amaryllis liilln- donna, of the Cape of Good Hope, and Buphane toxi- caria of South Africa arc violent poisons. The latter is used by the Kafirs to poison their arrows. In South America the farinaceous tubers of the Alstrcemeri:c are eaten. The most important plants are the Yuccas. From the terminal bud of these, a sugary liquid is obtained which by the Mexicans is made into a fer- mented drink, called pulque; when distilled this drink is called mescal. The juice of the leaves has been used for syphilis, scrofula, and cancers. The leaf-fibers yield vegetable silk or sisal hemp, and are also made into paper. Razor-strops and cork are made from the pith. The flowers are sometimes boiled and eaten.

Forty or more genera are in cultivation in America, as ornamental plants in greenhouse and garden. Among these are: Agave (Century Plant, Sisal Hemp, Pulque Plant); Alstroemeria; Amaryllis (Belladonna Lily) ; Beschorneria; Bomarea; Bravoa (Mexican Twin Flower); Cooperia (Evening Star, Giant Fairy Lily); Crinum (St. John's Lily, Florida Swamp Lily) ; Eucharis (Amazon Lily, Star of Bethlehem) ; Eurycles (Brisbane Lily) ; Furcrsea; Galanthus (Snowdrop) ; Griffinia (Blue Amaryllis); Hoemanthus (Blood Lily); Hippeastrum (Amaryllis, Lily-of-the- Palace, Barbadoes Lily); Hy- menocallis (Spider Lily, Sea Daffodil) ; Hypoxis (Star Grass), native; Leucoium (Snowflake); Lycoris (Golden Spider Lily); Narcissus (Narcissus, Jonquil, Daffodil, Pheasant's Eye); Nerine (Guernsey Lily); Pancratium (Spider Lily, Spirit Lily); Polianthes (Tuberose); Sprekelia (Jacobsean Lily); Tecophilsea (Chilean Cro- cus) ; Vallota (Scarborough'Lily) ; Zephyranthes (Zephyr Flower, Fairy Lily, Atamasco Lily).

39. Taccaceae (from the genus Tacca, from the Malay name). TACCA FAMILY. Fig. 12. Herbaceous plants: leaves large, entire, or commonly pinnatifid or bipinna- tifid, all basal: flowers saucer- or urn-shaped, bisexual, regular, epigynous; perianth of 6 nearly separate simi- lar parts in 2 series; stamens 6, borne on the base of the perianth ; filaments queerly broadened and cucullate; ovary inferior, 1-celled, or incompletely 3- celled; ovules numerous; placenta; parietal; style um- brella-like, the terminal disk variously lobed, and bear- ing the peculiar stigmatic pores beneath: fruit a capsule or berry; seed albuminous.

Taccaceaj has 2 genera and 10 species, inhabitants of the tropics of both hemispheres, mostly of the Malay archipelago. A very distinct family of doubtful relationship, even suggesting several Dicotyledonous families, but probably close to the Dioscoriacese and Amaryllidaceae. The acaulescent habit, the epigynous bisexual flowers, the six queer stamens, and the 1-celled, many-ovuled ovary, are together distinctive.

Several species of Tacca, e. g., T. pinnatifida, possess tubers from which a starchy meal, called arrowroot, is made in the East. Straw hats are made from the stems of Tacca by the Tahitians.

Tacca pinnatifida and T. cristate are cultivated sparingly in America.

40. Dioscoreaceae (from the genus Dioscorea, named in honor of Dipscorides) . YAM FAMILY. Fig. 12. Climbing or twining herbs or shrubs: leaves alternate, mostly arrowhead-shaped: flowers bisexual or unisex-

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

21

ual, regular, small, and inconspicuous; perianth of 6 similar parts, in 2 series; stamens usually 6, or the 3 inner staminodia; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1- celled; placenta; axile or parietal; ovules 2 in each cell, superposed, anatropous; stigmas 3, or each 2- parted: fruit a capsule or berry; seed albuminous.

Nine genera and about 170 species, of which 150 belong to the genus Dioscorea, are distributed very generally in the tropics and in the subtropics, and extend sparingly into the north temperate zone. They are most abundant in South America and the West Indies. One species reaches north to southern New England. The family is related to the Amaryllidaceae arid Liliaceas. The climbing habit, peculiar leaves, definite stamens, inferior 3-celled ovary, and 2 albumi- nous seeds are distinctive. Most Dioscoriaceae spring from a tuberous base, which is sometimes very large and conspicuous. Odd tubers are borne in the leaf- axils of species of Dioscorea and Rajania.

The tuberous root of Dioscorea Batatas yields the yams of eastern commerce, a very important article of food in the Far East. Those of several other species, including our own native D. villosa, are also cultivated in various parts of the tropics. The leaves of some species are used in intermittent fevers. The tubers of Tamim com munis were formerly employed as a pur- gative, and were also applied to bruises, hence the name "beaten woman's herb." The shoots are eaten like asparagus.

Two genera are in cultivation in the United States, mostly in the South: Dioscorea (Yam, Chinese Potato, Cinnamon Vine, Air Potato); Testudinaria (Hottentot's Bread, Tortoise Plant, Elephant's Foot), rarely grown.

41. Iridaceas (from the genus Iris, the rainbow). IRIS FAMILY. Fig. 12. Herbs or sub-shrubs with fibrous roots or often tuberous rootstocks (corms): leaves mostly basal, equitant, linear: flowers usually showy, bisexual, regular or irregular, epigynous, each with 2 spathc-like bracts; perianth of 6 petaloid parts in 2 series, usually unlike, generally connate into a tube; stamens 3, the inner whorl wanting, separate or con- nate; anthers extrorse; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1-celled; ovules few to many, anatropous; style 1; stig- mas 3: fruit a capsule; seeds albuminous.

The iris family has 57 genera and about 1,000 species of wide distribution. The two main centers are the Cape of Good Hope and subtropical America. The family is not plainly related to any other, perhaps most closely to the Amaryllidaceje. The ensiform equitant leaves, the 6-parted showy perianth, the 3 extrorse stamens, and the inferior 3-celled ovary, are together characteristic.

The rootstocks of many Iridaceae are purgative and diuretic, e. g., Iris florentina, I. germanica, I. pallida, and /. versicolor. The rootstock of I. florentina is fragrant and used for sachet perfume and tooth-powder (orris root). /. Pseudacorus and /. versicolor have been used for dropsy and diarrhea. /. f&'.idissima was an ancient remedy for scrofula and hysteria. The stigmas of Crocus sativus have been renowned since earliest times as an emmenagogue; they are deep orange in color, and used also in dyeing and as a condiment. Iris- green of the painters was prepared by treating violet iris flowers with lime. The seeds of /. Pseudacorus have been used as a substitute for coffee. The rootstocks of Homeria cottina of South Africa are very poisonous. The family contains many well-known ornamental plants.

In America, many genera are in cultivation, all for ornamental purposes. Among these are: Belamcanda (Blackberry Lily, Leopold Flower); Crocus; Freesia; Gladiolus; Hermodactylus (Snake's-head Iris); Iris (Fleur-de-lis, Iris, Glad win); Ixia; Moraa (Wedding Iris) ; Schizostylis (Crimson Flag) ; Sisyrinchium (Blue- eyed Grass, Satin Flower, Rush Lily) ; Sparaxis (Wand Flower); Tigridia (Tiger Flower, Shell Flower); Tri- tonia (Blazing Star).

Order 20. SCITAMINE.E

42. Musaoeae (from the genus Musa, the Arabic name). BANANA FAMILY. Fig. 12. Large, semi-ligne- ous herbs, the stout stem enveloped at base by the sheathing petioles, unbranched: leaves alternate, entire, convolute, pinnately parallel-veined: flowers bisexual, or unisexual, irregular, epigynous, borne in the axil of a bract in spikes with subtending spathes; nectaries ovarian; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, the parts un- equal in size and shape, separate or variously united; stamens 6, 5 fertile and 1 staminodium; ovary inferior, 3-celled; ovules solitary and basal, or numerous and axile, anatropous; style 1; stigmas usually 3: fruit

6b

12. TACCACE.E; 1. Tacca, flower. DIOSCOREACE*: 2. Dios- corea, leaf and fruit. IRIDACE.E: 3. Crocus, o, vertical section whole plant; 6, floral diagram. 4. Sisyrinchium, flower. MOSA- c],!:: 5. Musa; a, flower, *t., stamen; h, floral diagram. ZIN- GIBERACE.E: 6. Zingiber, a, flower; St., stamen; 6, floral diagram.

fleshy and pulpy or drupaceous, indehiscent, dehiscent or separating into fruitlets; seeds with perisperm; embryo straight.

Six genera and about 60 species occur, 30 of which belong to the genus Heliconia and 20 to Musa, of gen- eral tropical distribution. Fossil species are known. The family is related to the Marantaceae, Zingiberaceae and Cannaceae; with the last it is often united. These families all have irregular flowers of the same type, and inferior ovaries; but the Musaceae differ in their slightly differentiated calyx and corolla, in the 5 fertile stamens, and in the absence of aromatic principles.

The banana (Musa paradisiaca, M. sapientum, etc.) is the most important economic plant, the fruit of which is widely used for food. The pith of the stem, top of the floral spike, and also the shoots, are eaten as vegetables. The fibers from the petioles of Musa textilis are made into thread and fabrics. The leaves are used to thatch huts. The traveler's tree (Ravenala mada- gascariensis) holds sufficient water at the leaf bases to serve for drink. The water is obtained by boring the sheath. The seeds of this tree are eaten.

Four genera are in cultivation in the South and in conservatories, for ornament; and one also, Musa, for the fruit: Heliconia (Balisier, Wild Plantain) ; Musa (Ba- nana, Plantain Tree, Chumpa, Adam's Fig) ; Ravenala (Traveler's Tree); Strelitzia (Bird of Paradise Flower).

43. Zingiberacese (from the genus Zingiber, the Indian

22

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

name). GINGER FAMILY. Fig. 12. Herbs with creeping or tuberous rhizomes, rarely with fibrous roots: leaves basal or cauline, alternate, sheathing; blade with ligule at top of petiole, linear or elliptic, the pinnately parallel veins strongly ascending: flowers bisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, differentiated into a tubular 3-toothed or spathiform somewhat herbaceous calyx, and a tubular unequally 3-lobed corolla; 1 stamen only is fertile, opposite this is a large petaloid staminodium, and there are sometimes other smaller ones; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1- celled; ovules many in each cell; style 1; stigma usually 1: fruit a capsule; seed with large perisperm, small endosperm, and straight embryo.

There are 24 genera and about 270 species, distributed in the tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. Only 2 genera are in America. The largest genera are Amo- inuiii, with 50 species, and Alpinia, with 40 species. The family is related to the Musacese, Marantacece and Cannacea, but differs in the ligule, the aromatic oil, the sharp differentiation of the perianth, the single stamen, and the large single staminodium.

To the spicy aromatic flavor of the rhizomes and fruits the family owes its useful qualities. Ginger is from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, cultivated from India. Cardamon fruits are from Eleltaria Cardamo- mum of farther India. Curcuma or turmeric is from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa, cultivated from south- east Asia. This is used in medicine, and for flavor- ing pickles. In it is a yellow dye. The seeds of Amo- mum Melegueia of west Africa are the grains of para-

13. CAXNACE*: 1. Canna, a, flower; 6, floral diagram. MAHANTACE.E: 2. Maranta, a, flower, pistil removed; 6, floral diagram. OROHIDACE*: 3. Lycaste, a, flower; 6, column, front view; c, pollinia and gland; d, floral diagram. 4. Cypripedium, a, flower; b, column, under side; c, column, side view; d, floral dia- gram, (el., fertile stamen; tier., sterilo stameii; stig., stigma; a, gland; p., pistil).

dise of commerce. Galangal, used in perfumery, is the rootstock of Alpinia Galanga of the East Indies.

Several genera are in cultivation in America, mostly grown for ornamental purposes in greenhouses and principally in the South. Among these are: Alpinia (Shell Flower); Amomum; Curcuma (Curcuma, Tur- meric); Elettaria (commercial Cardamon seeds); He- dychium (Butterfly Lily, Ginger Lily, Garland Lily;; Ksempferia; Zingiber (Ginger).

44. Cannaceae (from the genus Canna, the origin of the name not clear). CANNA FAMILY. Fig. 13. Similar to the Marantaceae in all but the following structural details: no joint nor ligule at summit of petiole; ovules many in each cell of the ovary; embryo straight.

This family contains a single genus and 25-50 species of tropical and subtropical America'.

The starchy rhizome of C. edulis is grown and eaten in the West Indies and Australia. The arrowroot starch of the English and French is derived from C. coccinea of the West Indies and South America. The cannas are popular ornamental garden plants.

45. Marantaceae (from the genus Maranta, named for Maranti, a Venetian botanist and physician of the 16th century). ARROWROOT FAMILY. Fig. 13. Herbs with rhizomes: leaves mostly basal, with an articulation at the summit of the petiole; blade linear to oval, pinnately parallel-veined: inflorescence usually surrounded by spathe-like bracts; flowers bisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of 6 parts, plainly differentiated into calyx and corolla, the latter somewhat irregular; one stamen of the inner set fertile, petaloid, with lateral anther, the two others of the inner whorl transformed into enlarged staminodia; usually 1 or 2 of the outer whorl also present as petaloid staminodia; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1-2-celled; ovule 1 in each cell; style flat and twisted or lobed: fruit a capsule or berry; seeds with perisperm, and aril; embryo curved.

Marantaceae has 12 genera and about 100 species, of damp situations in the tropics, mostly American. The largest genus is Calathea with 60 species. The family is related to the Cannaceao, Zingiberacea-, and Musa- cese. The joint at the summit of the petiole, the type of stamen-irregularity, the 1-seeded cells of the ovary, and the curved embryo are distinctive.

The rhizome of Maranta arundinacea is cultivated in tropical America, and furnishes the maranta arrowroot of commerce; rhizomes of some other species are eaten. Many species are ornamental, mostly for conservatory.

Five or 6 genera are in cultivation in America, as Calathea (Rattlesnake Plant); Maranta; Phrynium; Stromanthe; Thalia.

Order 21. MICROSPERM.*

46. Orchidaceae (from the genus Orchis, an ancient name of these plants). ORCHID FAMILY, tig. 13. Her- baceous plants of very diverse habit and structure; ter- restrial, epiphytic or saprophytic, sometimes climbing; the terrestrial with fibrous roots or with thickened tuber- like roots, the epiphytic often with the base of the leaf and adjoining stem swollen, forming a pseudobulb; the saprophytic without chlorophyll ; the epiphytic often with aerial hanging roots ate provided with a water-absorb- ing layer (velamen) : leaves alternate, succulent, coria- ceous or membranous, linear to oval: flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of G parts, in 2 series, usually all petaloid; one petal larger, forming the lip (labeUum) ; stamens originally 6, but all except 1 or 2 wanting, or reduced to staminodia, united with the pistil; pollen-grains compound, granular, or aggregated into masses (pollinia) which are cither free in the anther or attached by a stalk to a viscid apical or stigmatic gland; carpels 3; ovary inferior, 1- or 3-cclled; ovules very numerous; style united with tbe stamens to form the column; stigma in the front of the column, or on a projecting lobe: fruit a capsule; seeds very minute.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

23

This is an important family of more than 400 genera and between 6,000 and 10,000 species. Orchids are very widely distributed, except in the arctics, but are most numerous in the tropics. Those of temperate regions are mainly terrestrial; those in the tropics commonly epiphytic. The large genera are Epidendrum, 500 spe- cies; Habenaria, Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, and Un- cidium, 200^600 species each; Masdevallia, Odonto- glossum, and Maxillaria, each 100 or more species.

From the standpoint of the intricate and very special mechanisms evolved in order to insure cross-pollination, the orchids are the most wonderful of our insect- pollinated plants. For a detailed account see Darwin's "Fertilization of Orchids," or Kernerand Oliver's "Natu- ral History of Plants." In general, the insect visiting the showy flower for the honey comes in contact with the sticky gland above the stigma, thereby pulling it out, along with the attached pollen masses. While the insect is going to another flower, the pollen masses dry and bend down until they are in position to strike the viscid stigma, which tears away and retains some of the pollen. The method of pollination in Cypripedium is fundamen- tally different. Some orchids (e.g., Catasetum) possess a sensitive explosive mechanism that forcibly ejects the pollen mass, often to the distance of 2 or 3 feet. The minute seeds of the orchids are well adapted to be disseminated by the wind and find lodgment in the crevices of the bark of trees and on other supports. Orchids are divided into large groups as follows: Group I. Diandrse. The two lateral stamens of the inner whorl fertile, the dorsal of the outer whorl staminodial or fruitful, the others absent. Cypripe- dium, Selenipedium, Paphiopedilum, and others.

Group II. Monandrae. The dorsal stamen of the outer whorl fruitful, all the others wanting. By far the majority of the species belong here. Subgroup I. Pollinia connected by caudieles with a gland at base of anther near stigma. Subgroup 2. Pollen without caudieles or with these attached to a gland at apex of anther.

The family is very distinct and easily distinguished. Its only near relatives are the Burmanniaceae. The peculiar structure of the stamens and pistil, together with the minute exalbuminous seeds are distinctive.

The Orchidaccae is perhaps the most important family from the standpoint of ornamental gardening. To grow these singular, fantastic, showy, and often sweet-scented flowers has in recent years become almost a craze. It is estimated that, whereas Linmeus knew but a dozen exotic orchids, at the present day more than 2,500 are known to English horticulturists. Plants in the family useful for other purposes are few. The most important is vanilla, derived from the capsule of Vanilla planifolia of Mexico, and now widely culti- vated in the tropics. Faham (Angrxcum fragrans of Bourbon) has a fragrant, bitter-almond-like taste; the leaves are used for indigestion and tuberculosis, and are known as Bourbon tea. Salcp is derived from the roots of various terrestrial orchids of the Mediterra- nean region. The roots of helleborine (Epipaclis lali- folia) are used for rheumatism. The root of Spiranthes diurelica of Chile is renowned as a diuretic. The flow- ers of Habenaria conopsea are used for dysentery. Spi- ranthes aulumnalis and Habenaria bifolia are said to be aphrodisiac. The roots of Cypripedium paniflorum var. pubescens are frequently used in America as a substitute for valerian.

CLASS II. DICOTYLEDONE.E Sub-class 1. Archichlamydese (Choripelalse and Apetalx)

Order 22. VERTICILLALES

47. Casuarinaceae (from the genus Casuarina, de- rived from the resemblance of the branches to the feathers of the bird cassowary). CASUARINA FAMILY.

Fig. 14. Shrubs, or much-branched trees, with the habit of the horse-tail (Equisetum) or Ephedra: branches whorled, jointed, striate: leaves replaced by striate, many-toothed sheaths: flowers monoecious ordioscious, the staminate in spikes, the pistillate in heads ; perianth of the staminate flower of 2, rarely 1, bract-like parts; stamen 1; perianth of the pistillate flower 0; ovary 1-celled, rarely 2-celled, 2-4-ovuled; stigmas 2: fruit

14. CASUARINACEJ:: 1. Casuarina, a, portion of male inflores-

HLOHANTHACE.E: 4. Chloranthus, a, flower, vertical section;

dry, often samaroid, inclosed by the woody valve-like bracts; seeds 2, or 3-4, orthotropous, ascending.

A single genus containing about 20 species occurs in Australia and the neighboring islands, extending to Madagascar and to southeast Asia. The family is very distinct and its relationships are in doubt. It is placed here in the system because of the simple flowers. The peculiar habit, reduced staminate flowers, and peculiar fruit are characteristic.

The wood of Casuarina equisetifolia is very hard, and called ironwood. It is used in ship-building, and by the Indians for war-clubs; the powdered bark is used to dress wounds, or for diarrhea. A brown dye is obtained from the same plant.

A few species of Casuarina (Beefwood, She Oak) are cultivated in the South for timber and ornament.

Order 23. PIPEEALES

48. Saururaceae (from the genus Saururus, meaning lizard's tail, in allusion to the long slender spike). Liz ARD'S-T AIL FAMILY. Fig. 14. Herbs : leaves alternate, large and broad: flowers bisexual, regular, in a long, dense spike; perianth 0; stamens 6 or fewer, hypo- gynous or united with the pistil; carpels 3-4, separate, or united in to a 3-4-celled ovary; ovules 2 to several, parietal; stigmas as many as the carpels: fruit of follicles, or a lobed berry.

Three genera and about 4 species are found in tem- perate or subtropical Asia and North America. The family is related to the Piperacea, with which it is frequently united. From that family it differs in having several carpels in each flower and several parietal ovules for each carpel.

Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), a native herb, is in the trade as a garden plant for wet soil.

49. Piperacese (from the genus Piper, an ancient name of pepper). PEPPER FAMILY. Fig. 14. Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees: leaves alternate, rarely opposite or whorled: flowers in dense spikes, bisexual, or uni- sexual, regular; perianth 0; stamens 1-10; ovary

24

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

1-celled; ovule 1, basal; stigmas 1-4, rarely more, sessile: fruit a dry or fleshy berry.

There are 9 genera and about 1,025 species, confined to the tropics. The largest genera are Piper with 600 species and Peperomia with 400 species. The family is related to the Saururaceae, with which it is often united; otherwise it stands alone as a distinct type, the system- atic position of which is uncertain. The spicate inflores- cence, naked flowers, and 1-celled, 1-seeded ovary are distinctive.

The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum (Java, etc.) yields black pepper. The ripe fruit of the same plant yields white pepper. Long pepper is the whole spike of P. longum of India. The drug cubebs is obtained from P. Ciibeba. Betel consists of the leaves of P. Belle, which in India are mixed with the areca nut and masticated (p. 16). From an extraction of the roots of P. methysticum (ava, or kava-kava), mixed with the milk of coconuts, an intoxicating drink is made in the Pacific Islands. Some species of Peperomia are eaten as salads; others chewed as betel.

Some genera are in cultivation in America as green- house foliage plants: Peperomia, 10 or more species; Piper (Pepper, Black Pepper, Japanese Pepper).

50. Chloranthacese (from the genus Chlaranthus, signifying green flowers). CHLORANTHUS FAMILY. Fig. 14. Herbs, shrubs or trees: leaves opposite: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, very small, subtended by bracts, and mostly borne in spikes; perianth 0; stamens in the bisexual flowers 1-3, united with each other and with the ovary; in the staminate inflorescence inserted on a common axis and forming a spike; carpels 1, with 1 pendent ovule; stigma sessile: fruit drupaceous.

Three genera and about 35 species occur, in tropical America, East Asia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The family is related to the Piperacese and Saururaceae. The opposite leaves, the few stamens, which are often unilaterally united with the 1-celled ovary, and the suspended ovule, are peculiar.

The roots of Chlaranthits officinalis have a camphor- like odor, and are used in the East as a febrifuge.

One species of Chloranthus is grown in greenhouses for foliage and berries.

Order 24. SALICALES

51. Salicacese (from the genus Salix, the classical Latin name). WILLOW FAMILY. Fig. 15. Shrubs or trees, creeping in the arctics: leaves alternate, simple: flowers dioecious, both sexes in catkins, 1 flower to each scale; perianth 0; disk present, cup-shaped or finger- like; stamens 2-many, separate or united; ovary often pedicelled, 1-celled; placentae 2, parietal; ovules numer- ous; stigmas 2, often each 2-lobed: fruit a capsule; seeds with a basal tuft of long hairs.

Salicacese has 2 genera and about 180 species, of which 160 belong to the genus Salix; inhabitants of the north temperate and arctic zones; a few in the tropics and in South Africa. The family is not definitely related to any other family, though possibly to the Tamaricaceae. The flowers of both sexes in catkins, the glandular disk, and the dehiscent many-seeded capsule with comose seeds, are distinctive.

The bark of many species has been used for inter- mittent fevers and for tanning leather. A yellow dye occurs in the bark of Populus alba and P. iremula, also in Salix alba, S. daphnoides, and others. The resinous buds of P. balsamifera, or tacamahac, furnish American balm of Gilead. The staminate catkins of S. xgyptiaca are odoriferous and are used in the East in medicinal waters, as a cordial, and as a sudorific. Willow and poplar wood is soft and light. The twigs of several specie of Salix are universally used in basket-making.

The two genera are in cultivation in America, as

ornamental plants and for shelter-belts and basket- work and sometimes for timber: Populus (Poplar, As- pen, Tacamahac, Balm of Gilead [not the original], Cottonwood, Abele); and Salix (Willow, Osier).

Order 25. MYRICALES

52. Myricaceae (from the genus Myrica, the ancient name of the Tamarisk). SWEET GALE FAMILY. Fig. 15. Shrubs or trees: leaves alternate, usually simple, resin- ous: flowers monoecious or dioecious, in catkins or spikes, single for each bract; perianth 0; stamens 4-6, or 16, in the axil of the bract (scale); ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled; stigmas 2: fruit a drupe, usually slightly horned by union with the bracteoles; seed solitary, orthotropous, basal.

15. SALICACE*: 1. Salix, o, male flower; 6, female flower; c. cross-section ovary. 2. Populus, a, male flower; 6, dehiscing fruit, MYRICACE^E: 3. Myrica, a, male flower; b, female flower. Juo- LANDACE.«: 4. Juglans, a, diagram male flower; fc, diagram female flower; c, vertical section female flower. BETULACE^E: 5. Corylus, a, diagram male flower; 6, diagram female flowers. 6. Betula, a, male flowers; b, female flowers; c, diagram male flowers; d, diagram female flowers. 7. Alnus, a, male flowers; b, female flowers; c, dia- gram male flowers; d, diagram female flowers, (s, scale; a, 6, and c, bractioles of the first, second and third orders; pt perianth; g, gland. }

One genus with about 35 species is generally dis- tributed over the more temperate parts of the earth. The Myricaceae are related to the other amentiferous families, e.g., Juglandaccae. Fagacea; and Betulaceae. The indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit, basal seeds, two carpels, absence of perianth, and simple leaves are characteristic of the family.

Myrica Gale and other species are used for tanning leather. M. Gale has also been used in the preparation of beer. The wax from the drupelets of M. cerifera and M . carolinensis is used for making candles. The fruit of M. sapida and M. Nagi is edible. M. (Comp- tonia) asplenifolia has been used as a tonic. A volatile oil is obtained from the fruits of M. Gale. The root of M. cerifera is emetic and purgative.

M. Nn'gi is cultivated in California for the edible fruit. M. asplenifolia, native in the United States, is grown for ornament. Other species are sometimes planted.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

25

Order 26. JUGLANDALES

53. Juglandaceae (from the genus Juglans, a con- traction of the Latin Jams glans, the nut of Jupiter). WALNUT FAMILY. Fig. 15. Trees or shrubs, often resin- ous: leaves alternate, exstipulate, pinnately compound: flowers monoecious, small; the staminate in drooping catkins with single perianth of 4 parts, or rarely 0, one flower for each bract; the pistillate 2-3 together, with perianth of 4 parts wlhorent to the ovary as are also the bract and bracteole; ovary inferior, 1-celled; ovule 1, basal, orthotropous; stigmas usually 2- or 4-branched: fruit a nut with a fleshy exocarp, or bursting irregularly, or 4-valved, or winged.

In this family are 6 genera and about 35 species of the north temperate zone. The largest genus is Carya with 10 species. The family is related to other Amen- tiferae, e.g., Myricacese, Fagacese, and Betulacere. The indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit, basal seeds, 2 carpels, perianth and pinnate leaves are distinctive. Fossil species are known.

The wood of English walnut is highly valued, but that of Juglans nigra (black walnut) is one of the most valuable of woods. Hickory wood is